Boots on the Fireground:
An Analysis of Interagency Wildland Firefighter Boot Standards
Tim Lynch
Project Leader
Missoula Technology & Development Center
August 2008
1
Contents
Page
Executive Summary
3
Introduction
4
Section 1: Boot Construction
6
Traditional Wildland Firefighter Boots
Sole Categories
“Vibram” and “Lug” Soles
Sole Construction Methods
Synthetic Insoles, Orthotic Inserts and Liners
Steel-toed boots
Section 2: Environmental Hazards and Agency Policies
14
Wildland Fire Hazards
Puncture and Cut Hazards
Blisters
Aircraft Fire Hazards
Chain-saw Hazards
What Does ‘Adequate Ankle Support’ Mean?
Requirements for Wildland Firefighting Footwear in Wet Environments
Flame-Resistant Materials
Durability
Shock Attenuation
Energy Expenditure
Section 3: Regulations and Measurement Standards
21
OSHA Standards
Agency Standards
National Fire Protection Association Standard
Section 4: Summary of Significant Findings
25
Traditional Wildland Firefighter Boots
NFPA 1977 Standard
OSHA Standard for PPE
Fireline Handbook Standard
Red Book Standard
Mountaineering Boots
Hazards
Boot Components
Section 5: Some Management Options
30
Appendix A: NFPA 1977 Standard on Protective Clothing and
Equipment for Wildland Fire Fighting, 2005 Edition
32
References
44
2
Executive Summary
The recent trend of wildland firefighters wearing mountaineering boots has prompted
questions about whether these boots provide an adequate measure of safety and whether
they meet interagency wildland fire standards. The primary concern is that contact with
burning vegetation has caused the soles of some mountaineering boots to detach from the
uppers. A secondary concern is that these kinds of boots may not adequately protect
firefighters’ lower legs and feet from external hazards, including exposure to fire.
In addition, smaller sizes of some men’s and women’s mountaineering boots do not meet
the minimum boot height requirement in the Interagency Standards for Fire and Aviation
Operations (Red Book). The Red Book standard doesn’t allow firefighters with smaller
feet to wear certain models of boots that are highly favored by some firefighters.
A review of interagency wildland firefighter boot policies revealed that some interagency
policy documents contradicted one another. This review also showed that interagency
wildland fire boot policies are vague in some respects and do not contain clear supporting
definitions. Because of this lack of clarity, fire managers are sometimes unable to
determine whether firefighters’ boots provide sufficient protection and meet interagency
standards.
This analysis confirms that traditional logger-style lug-sole boots provide an acceptable
level of protection from the external hazards regularly encountered by wildland
firefighters. However, recent footwear studies have shown that the previously
unconsidered hazards of impact shock and boot weight also should be factored into
policy decisions pertaining to firefighter’s boots.
Studies show that boot soles that do not absorb shock well increase the potential for bone,
joint, and soft tissue injuries. Studies also show that wearing heavier footwear increases
the amount of energy expended, which can increase fatigue. Fatigue makes firefighters
more prone to slips, trips, and falls, some of the leading causes of injuries, and also may
contribute to repetitive motion bone and soft tissue injuries.
There is a risk tradeoff with boots that do a good job of protecting firefighters against fire
and other occupational hazards but leave them vulnerable to other injuries and excessive
fatigue.
The order in which information is presented in this paper is by design. If you read the
section on boot construction first, then the section on hazards and policies, you will
develop a base of knowledge that will make the section on regulations and measurement
standards easier to understand. The summary of significant findings highlights key points
from the first three sections. The paper concludes by offering some management options.
For additional information contact Tim Lynch at 406-329-3958 or email tlynch@fs.fed.us
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Introduction
In October 2006, the Missoula Technology & Development Center (MTDC) began a
project to evaluate standards for wildland firefighter boots used by employees of the
Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and the Bureau of Land Management,
National Park Service, Bureau of Indian Affairs, and Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S.
Department of the Interior. The standards of State wildland fire organizations were not
included in this study.
This review was requested by the Federal Fire & Aviation Safety Team (FFAST) in
response to the growing trend of firefighters using mountaineering style boots for
wildland firefighting. The project was approved and funded through the Forest Service
Technology and Development Program’s Fire and Aviation Management Steering
Committee.
Mountaineering Boots: A New Twist on an Old Standard
Until a few years ago, it was uncommon to see wildland firefighters wearing anything
besides traditional logger-style boots. That changed when some enterprising firefighters
discovered that two models of mountaineering boots made by a company called La
Sportiva met the basic standards required by Federal land management agencies; allleather outer construction, lug traction soles, and eight-inch minimum height (when
measured from the bottom of the heel). Firefighters who have switched to the La Sportiva
boots usually cite comfort and/or lighter weight as the primary reasons for their
conversion.
As firefighters began wearing the La Sportiva boots on wildland fires, questions arose
about their suitability for firefighting. Numerous accounts indicate the sole can separate
from the boot upper when boots are exposed to fire-generated heat. Fire managers also
have registered concerns over whether these boots are tall enough to adequately protect
the lower legs and ankles of firefighters from common wildland firefighting hazards.
In June 2005, the National Fire and Aviation Executive Board (an interagency board that
provides guidance on Federal wildland fire policy) issued a memorandum confirming that
these boots met the basic requirements for firefighting, but with an important caveat;
“smaller sized men’s and women’s La Sportiva boots are not as tall as larger sized boots
and may therefore not meet the minimum eight inch height standard.”
Because of this idiosyncrasy, the NFAEB memorandum ended with the statement “it is
incumbent upon each supervisor to insure the footwear being worn by their subordinates
meet (sic) their specific agency standard.”
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In spite of the height requirement issue, the La Sportiva mountaineering boots quickly
became popular through word of mouth, and more firefighters began wearing them.
Today, many hot shot crewmembers, smokejumpers, rappellers, engine crewmembers
and others wear these boots on wildland fire assignments. Many converts to the La
Sportiva boots prefer them over traditional logger-style boots despite their known
susceptibility to delamination of the sole from the boot.
Footwear for Soldiers and Firefighters
When it comes to footwear, soldiers and wildland firefighters face similar challenges.
Both groups are exposed to environmental hazards while hiking long distances carrying
heavy loads over varied terrain. Soldiers and firefighters can both be rendered ineffective
if their footwear breaks down, or if their feet or legs are injured (Milgrom & others
1992).
Both soldiers and wildland firefighters may be exposed to flames. During busy fire
seasons, the military is sometimes called upon to fight wildland fires.
Because so many aspects of the missions of firefighters and soldiers are similar, footwear
studies conducted by the military may have value for the Federal land management
agencies that manage wildland fire.
Natick Soldier Center Partnership
The U.S. Army’s Natick Soldier Research, Development & Engineering Center in
Natick, MA, conducts footwear research projects sponsored by all branches of the United
States military.
The U.S. Forest Service’s T & D program and the Natick Soldier Center have been
exchanging information for many years. Natick engineers and researchers provided some
of the data referenced in this paper.
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Section 1: Boot Construction
Traditional Wildland Firefighter Boots
The basic design of standard logger-style leather boots used by wildland firefighters has
changed little since the early twentieth century. The uppers (everything above the
sole/heel) are made from heavy-gauge cowhide and generally are at least 8 inches high
(figure 1).
Figure 1: Some descriptive terms used in boot manufacturing.
Boot laces routed back-and-forth through metal eyelets on the leading edges of the
quarter cinch and secure each boot to the wearer’s foot. This design permits a snug fit and
provides support around the firefighter’s ankles and lower legs. A fully gusseted tongue
(fully gusseted means both sides of the tongue are stitched to the inside of the eyelet strip
from bottom to top, see figure 2) keeps rocks, dirt and other friction sources out of the
boots.
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Figure 2: Lug-soled Wesco logger-style boot and a cutaway view.
Sole Categories
Two main categories of soles are used for logger-style boots. Loggers commonly use
calked (called cork) boots studded with sharpened steel spikes for better traction on logs
and slippery surfaces (figure 3).
Because the steel spikes on calked boots conduct heat to the bottoms of the wearer’s feet,
calked boots usually are considered unsuitable for wildland firefighting.
Figure 3: Calked boot sole.
The other category of boot sole used by loggers is the “Vibram-type” or rubber lug sole
commonly found on the leather boots used by many wildland firefighters (see figure 2).
Lug-soled logger-style boots usually feature a prominent heel and deep heel breast (see
figure 1).
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The relative merits of high boot heels are difficult to quantify or prove. White’s Boots
advertises that the high heel improves arch support and comfort. It would be difficult to
prove or disprove this claim without performing a comparative study of nearly identical
boots with varying heel heights.
In the course of conducting research for this paper, no studies on the biomechanical
effects of work boots with high heels were found. However, several studies of other types
of footwear indicate taller heels alter the wearer’s gait, posture, and muscle movements,
which may lead to long-term bone and joint problems.
“Vibram” and “Lug” Soles
“Vibram” is the name of an Italian company, but the term is frequently used to describe
any lug-soled footwear. The term “lug” refers to the molded projections on the underside
of the boot’s sole that provide traction.
Vibram actually makes many different types of soles with different tread patterns using
different compounds. Other manufacturers make lug soles from rubber-based compounds
that are similar in appearance and performance to Vibram lug soles.
To further confuse the issue, Vibram does make a lug sole that meets the National Fire
Protection Association 1977 Standard on Protective Clothing and Equipment for
Wildland Firefighting: 2005 edition (appendix A), but the lug soles on most boots used
by wildland firefighters have not been certified as meeting this standard.
Sole Construction Methods
When logger-style boots are assembled, both calked boot soles and lug soles are usually
stitched to the boot uppers. Two frequently used variations of stitched sole construction
include the Goodyear welt and the stitchdown method (figure 4). The midsoles of these
boots generally consist of two or more layers of leather, sometimes combined with a
synthetic layer. A metal alloy shank affixed to the leather midsole shapes and maintains
the arch.
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Figure 4: A boot sole being attached to upper using stitchdown construction method.
Contact adhesives and one or two lines of stitching attach the boot soles to the uppers.
Manufacturers of lug-soled boots sometimes use metal screws to reinforce the stitch
line(s) around the sole. A combination of nails and screws attaches the heel (figure 5).
Figure 5: Attaching the leather heel foundation to a Vibram lug-soled boot.
When new, logger-style boots are quite stiff and relatively uncomfortable. These boots
require breaking in so the leather conforms to the wearer’s feet and lower legs, and
develops flex lines. During the break-in period, it is not uncommon for the wearer to
develop friction blisters on the feet and shins.
Once a pair of boots has been broken in, they are not easily transferred to another user.
Hygiene issues and the difficulty of sanitizing used boots also make it undesirable to
transfer used boots.
Sole and shin blisters are less of a problem for firefighters once the boots are broken in,
but firefighters sometimes develop blisters on their feet after extended hiking on steep
terrain and sidehills regardless of their boots’ condition.
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Boots with cemented sole construction (figure 6) use contact cement to attach pre-cast
molded rubber compound soles directly to the uppers. This method is less secure than
stitched sole construction, making boots with cemented soles more susceptible to
delamination after exposure to heat or wet conditions than stitched sole boots.
Figure 6: La Sportiva Glacier boot with cemented sole construction.
The process of injection-molded boot sole construction, which is also called the direct
attachment method, begins by placing a rubber compound outsole that has already been
formed (figure 7) into a special mold beneath a sewn leather and fabric upper. Catalyzed
polyurethane foam is injected into the space between the upper and the outsole, attaching
the two components. After the polyurethane foam midsole hardens, each boot is removed
from its mold and excess foam is trimmed away (figure 8).
Figure 7: Vibram outsole of Wellco military boot.
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Figure 8: Wellco military boot with injection-molded sole.
A similar process is used to create ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) midsoles for footwear.
EVA midsoles absorb shock much like polyurethane midsoles. EVA midsoles are
sometimes molded separately and then cemented to the outsoles and uppers.
Although injection-molded boot soles are less durable than stitched boot soles, the
polyurethane (or EVA) layer between the upper and outsole provides excellent shock
absorption (also known as shock attenuation). Studies conducted at the Natick
Soldier Center (Hamill and Bensel 1995) have shown that harder soles transmit more
shock to the wearer’s feet and legs, potentially increasing the incidence of shock-related
injuries to bones, joints, and soft tissue.
In addition, injection-molded boot soles typically weigh significantly less than stitched
soles. There is a direct correlation between boot weight and energy expenditure; the less
weight firefighters have on their feet, the less energy they will use while walking or
hiking (Jones and others 1983).
Unfortunately, while polyurethane foam and EVA midsoles are good at reducing weight
and increasing shock absorption, they are susceptible to heat damage. Industry standard
boot tests indicate that most polyurethane or EVA midsoles begin to break down and melt
before they reach 500 degrees F.
A recent entry in the wildland firefighter footwear market is the Haix Wildfire U.S. boot
(figure 9), an injection-mold constructed boot that features a heat resistant rubber
compound outsole combined with a polyurethane midsole. This boot features a Gore-Tex
vapor-permeable waterproof liner and is certified to the NFPA 1977 standard. A pair of
these boots weighs approximately 1 pound less than a pair of logger-style boots of the
same size.
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Figure 9: Haix Wildfire U.S. boot.
Synthetic Insoles, Orthotic Inserts and Liners
Many removable insoles are available today that can be worn inside a firefighter’s boots.
The main function of insoles is to reduce shock (Windle and others 1998); some insoles
also reduce friction or prevent foot odor. Shock-absorbing insoles such as the Sorbothane
insole use a solidified gel material to cushion shock.
Orthotic inserts come in many materials and forms, most of which are custom shaped to
the wearer’s feet. Orthotics keep the feet correctly positioned and fill the voids beneath
the arches, helping to keep the wearer’s feet from shifting around inside their boots.
The less feet move inside boots the less friction, which translates into fewer blisters.
Vapor permeable waterproof liners are a relatively recent development in the boot
industry. In most cases, one or more layers of Gore-Tex or other synthetic water barrier
fabric are used to create a permanent inner boot liner. Many work boots now include
vapor permeable waterproof liners, including some boots that meet the NFPA 1977
standard.
Although synthetic insoles, orthotics, and liners may melt or burn, these materials are
completely enclosed within the boot, which protects them from direct exposure to high
levels of radiant or conductive heat.
Steel-toed boots
The term “steel-toed boots” is really a generic term for boots with crush-resistant toe
shields. “Safety-toe boots” is another name sometimes used for this boot type. The
protective toe shields may actually be made from metal alloys, plastic, or fiber/resin
compounds. Toe shields are usually covered by the boots’ outer layer and are not
removable.
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Safety-toe leather boots are recommended for many work applications. Boots with metal
toe shields are not generally recommended for firefighting because metal absorbs, retains,
and retransmits heat. Wildland firefighters’ feet are frequently exposed to high
conductive and radiant heat levels from standing or walking in burning materials (for
instance when mopping up). Boots with metal toe shields would further limit their ability
to work in those conditions.
Heat usually is not a problem for boots with metal shanks because the shanks are covered
by layers of leather and the outsole. In addition, the sole in the arch area has less direct
contact with hot materials than the rest of the sole.
A 2002 Canadian study found that wildland firefighters have a low incidence of impact
injuries to the feet and that boots with protective toe shields were more likely to create
foot irritation and discomfort (Ault 2002).
The Canadian study examined injury statistics for wildland firefighters from the
provinces of British Columbia and Alberta from 1996 through 2000. Alberta wildland
firefighters wear safety-toe boots; British Columbia firefighters do not.
During the study period, Alberta firefighters experienced 689 injuries from all causes,
with only 5 impact injuries to the feet or toes. In the same period, the British Columbia
firefighters had 1,787 total injuries, and 10 impact injuries to the feet or toes, which is
statistically a lower percentage of total injuries than the safety-toe boot wearing Alberta
firefighters. The study concluded that proper fit and comfort of footwear outweighed the
occasional exposure to impact injuries.
While safety-toe boots are not recommended for wildland firefighting, some agency
policy sources recommend that chain-saw operators wear safety-toe boots (see Section 2).
This would seem to be a contradiction because operating chain-saws is a common
wildland firefighting task. Interagency wildland fire policies do not prohibit firefighters
from wearing safety-toe boots.
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Section 2: Environmental Hazards and Agency Policies
The five Federal land management agencies that support wildland fire operations
(Forest Service, National Park Service, Bureau of Land Management, Bureau of Indian
Affairs, Fish and Wildlife Service) endorse the Interagency Standards for Fire and
Aviation Operations, better known as the “Red Book.” Other interagency policy guides,
such as the Interagency Helicopter Operations Guide (IHOG), include additional
restrictive policy. In addition, agency-specific policies related to firefighter’s boots are
included in agency policy documents.
The Red Book is the source of the basic interagency boot standard for wildland
firefighters. Page 7 of chapter 7 states:
“Required Fireline PPE includes: 8-inch high, lace-type exterior leather work boots with
non-slip, Vibram type, melt-resistant soles. The 8-inch height requirement is measured
from the bottom of the heel to the top of the boot. Alaska is exempt from the Vibram-type
sole requirement. All boots that meet the footwear standard as described above are
authorized for firefighting.”
Although the Red Book boot definition contains no reference to the NFPA 1977 standard,
the section on Clothing and Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) in chapter 1 of the
National Wildfire Coordinating Group (NWCG) Fireline Handbook includes the
following bullet statements:

All PPE must meet or exceed NFPA 1977 Standard on Protective Clothing and
Equipment for Firefighters (current edition).
and

Wear 8-inch laced all-leather boots with slip and melt-resistant soles and heels.
Because boots are specifically identified in the section on PPE, it is assumed the persons
who crafted the language in the Fireline Handbook intended for boots to be included as
part of the PPE. Many wildland firefighters wear boots that meet the Red Book definition
but do not meet the Fireline Handbook definition. The Fireline Handbook requirement
that mandates that all PPE must meet or exceed the NFPA 1977 standard has been largely
overlooked or misinterpreted by fire program leaders.
Wildland Fire Hazards
One of the primary functions that wildland firefighter boots provide is preventing burn
injuries caused by exposure to radiant, convective, and conductive heat produced by
burning vegetation. On a given fire assignment, the number and duration of exposures to
this hazard can vary from no exposure to prolonged exposure to high heat levels.
14
In fuel types with heavy surface and ground fuels, the burned litter and humus (duff)
layer can be hotter than 1,000 degrees F for hours or even days. Burned-out stump holes
and heavy fuel concentrations also can remain red-hot for days after a fire’s passage.
In the course of a “typical” fire assignment, it is not uncommon for a firefighters’ boots
to touch burning fuels for brief periods, such as when mopping up. The conductive heat
transmitted through their boot soles usually discourages firefighters from standing or
walking in burning fuels for very long.
The track record of mountaineering boots used for wildland firefighting is relatively
brief; accounts from users indicate that the La Sportiva boots are susceptible to damage
from exposure to heat. In most cases, the glue that attaches the soles to the uppers appears
to break down, allowing the soles to detach or partially detach.
It should not be surprising to discover that footwear primarily designed to withstand low
temperatures can be adversely affected by the extremely high temperatures of wildland
fires. It has not been determined whether this vulnerability poses a significant safety
issue.
Puncture and Cut Hazards
The wildland fire environment is filled with objects that can slice or pierce a firefighter’s
feet and lower legs. Sharp rocks can damage the boots as well as feet. Cactus, briars and
other aggressive vegetation can puncture boots and skin. Sharp ends of limbs and anglecut brush become “punji” sticks that can penetrate the feet and ankles.
The soles of the boots protect firefighters from countless puncture hazards. Many
manufacturers use a heavier gauge of leather on the lower sections of boots to shield the
top and sides of feet from cuts and impacts. The tongues, laces and quarters (see figure 1)
of boots protect the firefighter’s lower legs and ankles from sharp objects and tripping
hazards.
Tools also present puncture hazards for wildland firefighters. Mishandled tools can cut
firefighter’s feet, ankles, or lower legs. A glancing hit from a combi-tool might do
nothing more than leave a scar on the wearer’s boot. A direct blow from a sharp Pulaski
could easily cut through any boot and the foot inside.
Although MTDC was unable to obtain statistics on these types of injuries, some level of
“armoring” is desirable in firefighters’ boots to protect their feet and lower legs from
hand tools, as well as inadvertent contact with rocks, sticks, etc.
High-quality cowhide leather has qualities that make it suitable for wildland firefighting
footwear; it is durable, heat resistant, cut resistant and puncture resistant. Thick leather
absorbs and redistributes light impacts to the feet and lower legs that might otherwise
cause pain or minor injuries such as bruises.
15
In contrast, the ballistic nylon and Cordura used in modern military boots also are
durable, cut resistant, and puncture resistant, but these relatively thin and pliable
materials do not absorb or redistribute impacts as well as heavy-gauge leather.
Additionally, ballistic nylon and Cordura can be damaged by temperatures hotter than
400 F, will readily burn, and will sustain flames after the heat source has been removed.
In general, the higher quality heavy-gauge leather “logger-style” boots used for wildland
firefighting have a good track record of providing protection from burns, impacts,
punctures and cut hazards. This type of boot has also proven to be durable, despite the
physical challenges posed by sharp objects, heat, water, chemical foams, retardant, and
other influences. With proper care, a good pair of leather work boots can withstand two
to three busy fire seasons without repairs.
Blisters
Friction blisters of the feet and lower legs are a common wildland firefighter malady. On
large fires, blisters are one of the most frequent fireline injuries treated by incident
medical specialists (Ault 2002). In many cases, the firefighter can return to work after
treatment, but occasionally severe blisters require that the injured firefighter be removed
from the fireline. On rare occasions, severe or infected blisters can become a lifethreatening condition.
A number of factors contribute to blisters. The type of socks worn, the type of boots, the
condition of the boots, degree of wetness, terrain features, hiking surface, distance hiked,
recent work assignments and other factors influence whether an individual will develop
blisters. Extended hiking in steep terrain, especially on sidehills, can lead to blisters.
Aircraft Fire Hazards
During aviation operations, boots need to protect firefighters from aircraft fires. Aircraft
often burn after crashes, so wildland firefighter PPE worn in an aircraft must provide
some protection against aircraft fires.
The Interagency Helicopter Operations Guide (IHOG) contains several references to
wildland firefighter PPE. From chapter 9, section D:
D. Fire-Resistant Clothing.
The primary purpose of fire-resistant clothing is to provide the wearer with protection
from flash fire burns.
3. Shirt/Trousers Combination.
The use of the wildland firefighter Nomex shirt and trousers (two-piece) are authorized.
The shirt sleeves and trouser legs shall have sufficient length to allow overlap of the
glove cuffs and boot tops, respectively. Shirt cuffs shall be worn down and fastened.
16
The main objective for having the trousers overlap the boot tops is to prevent skin on the
lower legs from being exposed (and possibly burned) after a crash. Although the odds of
any individual firefighter being involved in a helicopter crash are small, PPE standards
have to continue to address this possibility.
Chain-saw Hazards
Wildland firefighters frequently fell and buck trees, two of many tasks that pose hazards
to their feet and legs. The Forest Service Health and Safety Code Handbook (Forest
Service Handbook 6709.11) contains several examples of agency-specific policies or
recommendations that are more restrictive than those within either the Red Book or the
IHOG. The Health and Safety Code Handbook, section 22.48c (Personal Protective
Equipment) says:
The following PPE is required for chain saw operations:
6. Chain saw chaps. The chain saw chaps shall meet the requirements of Forest Service
Specification 6170-4; it is recommended that they overlap boots a minimum of 2 inches
(51 mm).
7. Heavy-duty, cut-resistant or leather, waterproof or water-repellent, 8-inch high (204
mm) laced boots with non-skid soles (hard toes are optional). For further direction refer
to FSM 6716.03, Personal Protective Equipment (Condition of Hire) Policy.
The combination of heavy, cut-resistant or leather boots and overlapping chain saw chaps
is to ensure protection from chain saw cuts.
The Bureau of Land Management’s (BLM) Job Hazard Analysis databank states:
Operators should wear heavy-duty, water-proof or water resistant work boots or logger’s
boots: such boots should provide some protection from contact with cutting blade, i.e.,
leather boots with steel reinforced toes are recommended, rubber boots with steel toes
are minimally acceptable.
Boots should be high enough to protect ankles from contact with saw blade, and to
provide adequate ankle support for walking on uneven terrain.
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What Does ‘Adequate Ankle Support’ Mean?
The term “adequate ankle support” is used in several land management agency
documents that reference footwear. Many people have interpreted “adequate ankle
support” to mean that any shoe that comes up to the ankle or slightly above provides
adequate ankle support.
For the purposes of this paper, it is assumed that “adequate ankle support” means that a
boot will provide some protection against lateral or medial ankle sprains, the most
common form of ankle injury. To meet this requirement, a boot must limit range of
motion from side to side. To limit range of motion along these axes, a boot quarter (figure
1) must have some inherent stiffness and rigidity, fit snugly around the ankle, and extend
at least a few inches above the intersection of the talus and tibia/fibula (ankle).
Under these criteria, a boot or shoe that only comes up to or slightly above the ankle joint
does not provide any measurable ankle support. The combination of the upper’s rigidity,
height, and snug fit around the lower leg is what limits lateral and medial ankle motion,
thus providing “adequate ankle support.”
Requirements for Wildland Firefighting Footwear in Wet Environments
Coastal plain forests and wildlife refuges in the southern United States, tundra in the
interior of Alaska, and other fire-prone yet swampy areas pose unique challenges for
firefighters. Footwear used by firefighters in these areas is often selected more for its
ability to keep firefighters’ feet dry than to protect the feet from fire or impact injuries.
Traditional logger-style leather boots are not waterproof. Eventually, even leather boots
that have been treated to repel water will become waterlogged. When a firefighter’s feet
are subjected to repeated long-term immersion in water, serious medical conditions can
develop. Immersion foot, sometimes known as trench foot, is a serious medical ailment
that can lead to swelling, blisters, sores and eventually gangrene, if left untreated.
Fire managers in wetter portions of the country generally deal with prolonged immersion
issues in one of two ways;

Limiting the amount of time that firefighters spend with wet feet and ensuring that
their feet have enough time to dry and recover.
or

Permitting the use of rubber boots or other footwear that will keep firefighters’
feet dry.
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Flame-Resistant Materials
Manufacturers of PPE such as firefighter shirts and trousers use the term “Flame
Resistant” (FR) to identify fabric materials and thread that will not support open flame
without an outside heat source. These materials resist active burning and will stop
burning when the heat source is removed. Leather is considered an FR material.
Commonly used FR fabrics and thread such as Nomex and Kevlar are light and strong.
Although many different weights and types of weaves of FR fabrics are available, only a
small fraction of the boots worn by wildland firefighters today use all FR components.
Most wildland firefighter boots sold commercially today do not come with a detailed list
of components and materials. Inexpensive boots sometimes feature synthetic materials
that look nearly identical to real leather. However, some of these materials readily break
down when exposed to moderate levels of heat. Synthetic boot materials can become a
safety issue if boots melt or deform from exposure to temperatures normally encountered
on wildland fires.
Durability
Although boot durability is not a safety issue by itself, poorly constructed boots can
create problems. When a firefighter’s boots are damaged or compromised by exposure to
conditions on the fireline, that firefighter is no longer able to contribute effectively. In
such circumstances, a fireline supervisor not only has to replace or do without the
sidelined firefighter, but may also have to find a way to transport the firefighter off the
fireline.
Durability is an important issue for many wildland firefighters who purchase their own
work boots. A pair of custom top-of-the-line wildland fire boots can cost more than $400
today. Firefighters sometimes purchase less expensive boots to save money. Such boots’
useful life may be much shorter than the useful life of higher quality boots.
Shock Attenuation
Engineers use the term “shock attenuation” to describe the relative ability of a material to
absorb or redistribute the force of an impact. All boot soles absorb or reduce shock to
some degree. In general, denser sole materials transmit more shock to the wearer’s feet
and legs. Repeated shock can injure bones and soft tissues, leading to painful and
debilitating conditions such as stress fractures and shin splints (Milgrom and others
1992).
Potential shock can be reduced in several ways. Removable shock-absorbing insoles,
such as Sorbothane insoles, have been shown to reduce accumulative shock and related
injuries (Windle and others 1998). Polyurethane and EVA soles and midsoles also
attenuate shock well compared to denser materials.
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Energy Expenditure
The weight of wildland firefighter boots needs to be considered as it relates to energy
expenditure. Under the best of circumstances, firefighting is hard work. Firefighters
frequently hike long distances over rough terrain to accomplish their assignments. There
is a tradeoff between heavier boots that provide superior protection and durability and
lighter boots that provide less protection but require less energy to pick up and put down.
Fatigue contributes to repetitive motion injuries of the feet, ankles, and legs (Hamill and
Bensel 1995). Fatigue also makes firefighters more susceptible to slips, trips, and falls,
some of the leading causes of injuries (Ault 2002).
A 1983 NATICK study (Jones and others 1983) found a direct correlation between the
weight of boots and energy expenditure. As the weight of test subjects’ footwear
increased, so did their heart rates and the amount of energy they expended. Edward
Frederick (1985) found that an increase of 100 grams of weight per running shoe
increased a runner’s energy expenditure by about 1 percent.
Table 1 was created using the assumption that Frederick’s running shoe weight-to-energy
expenditure ratio remains constant when applied to heavier footwear. The comparison in
Table 1 applies Frederick’s ratio to four different boot types. Under these parameters, a
person wearing the 5.8-pound logger-style lug-soled boots would expend about 4 percent
more energy than they would by hiking the same distance and course while wearing the
4.0 pound Wellco military boots.
Table 1: Weights of different boot types and estimated increases in energy expenditure
for heavier boots.
Boots (size 10)
Weight
Weight
Grams
Percent increase in
(pounds
(grams per per boot
energy expenditure
per pair) pair)
(over the next lighter
boots on the list)
Wellco military
4.0
1,814
907
La Sportiva Glacier
4.2
1,905
952.5
0.5
Haix Wildfire U.S.
5.0
2,267
1,133.5
1.8
Logger-style lug soled 5.8
2,630
1,315
1.8
20
Section 3: Regulations and Measurement Standards
OSHA Standards
The U.S. Department of Labor Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
is the primary federal entity charged with ensuring that workplace practices do not
expose employees to unnecessary risks.
Under section 19 of the Occupational Safety and Health Act and Executive Order 12196,
Federal agencies are required to follow 29 CFR Part 1960: Elements for Federal
Employee Occupational Safety and Health Programs. OSHA addresses most aspects of
wildland fire safety under the general duty clause paragraph 29 CFR 1960.8(a) "to
furnish each employee employment and a place of employment which are free from
recognized hazards that are causing or are likely to cause death or serious physical
harm."
Because OSHA does not have specific standards for wildland firefighting, the following
sections are interpreted to determine employer responsibilities pertaining to firefighter
PPE and footwear.
Personal Protective Equipment
1910.132(h)(1)
Except as provided by paragraphs (h)(2) through (h)(6) of this section, the protective
equipment, including personal protective equipment (PPE), used to comply with this part,
shall be provided by the employer at no cost to employees.
1910.132(h)(2)
The employer is not required to pay for non-specialty safety-toe protective footwear
(including steel-toe shoes or steel-toe boots) and non-specialty prescription safety
eyewear, provided that the employer permits such items to be worn off the job-site.
21
1910.132(h)(4)
The employer is not required to pay for:
1910.132(h)(4)(i)
The logging boots required by 29 CFR 1910.266(d)(1)(v)
1910.132(h)(4)(ii)
Everyday clothing, such as long-sleeve shirts, long pants, street shoes, and normal work
boots; or
1910.132(h)(4)(iii)
Ordinary clothing, skin creams, or other items, used solely for protection from weather,
such as winter coats, jackets, gloves, parkas, rubber boots, hats, raincoats, ordinary
sunglasses, and sunscreen.
Logging Operations
1910.266(d)(1)(v)
The employer shall assure that each employee wears foot protection, such as heavy-duty
logging boots that are waterproof or water repellent, cover and provide support to the
ankle. The employer shall assure that each employee who operates a chain saw wears
foot protection that is constructed with cut-resistant material which will protect the
employee against contact with a running chain saw.
On November 15, 2007, OSHA published a lengthy ruling in the Federal Register
relating to employers purchasing PPE for employees (Employer Payment for Personal
Protective Equipment; Final Rule 72:64341-64430). This ruling does not appear to alter
the present interpretation that Federal employers are not required to purchase “logging
boots” (1910.132(h)(4), 1910.132(h)(4)(i)) or “normal work boots” (1910.132(h)(4)(ii))
for wildland firefighters.
However, if Federal land management agencies endorse adoption/enforcement of the
NFPA 1977 Standard for wildland firefighter boots, OSHA would likely determine that
NFPA-compliant boots are “specialty” boots, which would make employers responsible
for purchasing them.
22
Agency Standards
One reason fire managers have trouble determining whether a boot meets agency
standards is that many of the standards are imprecise and subject to broad interpretation.
Because the land management agencies do not have a process to measure and test boots
and their components, subjective terms like “heavy gauge leather” and “melt resistant
soles” can be interpreted widely.
An aspect of the Red Book measuring standard (figure 10) that needs scrutiny is the
statement that the “8-inch height requirement is measured from the bottom of the heel to
the top of the boot
Figure 10: Red Book height measurement standard.
This definition differs from the definition used by boot manufacturers in the United
States. Most lace-up boots manufactured in this country are actually about 1 inch shorter
than the height identified by the manufacturer. Boot manufacturers determine height by
counting the number of pairs of eyelets, which are spaced about 1 inch apart. A standard
boot with 10 pairs of eyelets would be labeled as a 10-inch boot, but measured from the
bottom of the heel the boot would be about 9 inches tall.
The top lines of traditional logger-style boots used for wildland firefighting are nearly
perpendicular to the leg (see figure1). The top lines of the La Sportiva boots and many
other mountaineering boots angle downward from front to rear (see figure 6). Because the
Red Book does not specify whether the top line should be measured from the highest or
lowest point, many firefighters have interpreted the “top of the boot” to be the uppermost
part of the topline.
Measuring a boot’s height from the bottom of the heel may not be an appropriate
standard for wildland firefighter boots. A boot that had a very tall heel and relatively
short upper would still meet the Red Book 8-inch height definition.
23
National Fire Protection Association Standard
From the standpoint of clarity, the standard for boots from the NFPA 1977 Standard on
Protective Clothing and Equipment for Wildland Fire Fighting (2005 Edition) is much
more precise than the Red Book standard. The sections of the NFPA 1977 standard that
pertain to boots alone cover more than 12 pages (appendix A).
Representatives from the Missoula Technology and Development Center contributed to
development of the original NFPA 1977 standard and continue to provide input through
the NFPA Technical Committee on Wildland Firefighting Protective Clothing and
Equipment.
Compare the Red Book standard (figure 10), where a boot’s height is measured from the
bottom of the heel to the uppermost part of the boot, with the NFPA 1977 standard
(figure 11):
6.4.4 Footwear height shall be a minimum of 200 mm (8 in.).
6.4.4.1 The height shall be determined by measuring inside the boot from the center of
the insole at the heel up to a perpendicular reference line extending across the width of
the boot at the lowest point of the top line.
Figure 11: NFPA 1977 height measurement standard.
Note that the measurement is from the center of the insole at the heel, which means the
heel is not included in the measurement. The top line measurement is taken at the lowest
point of the top line- an important factor for boots with an angulated top line, such as the
La Sportiva boots.
24
The NFPA standard is precise, and it guarantees that a boot meeting the standard will be
tall enough to adequately support, cover and protect the ankle and lower leg.
The NFPA 1977 standard does not specify that boots must be made of leather, but does
require that they meet specific standards for puncture, cut, heat, and flame resistance.
The testing and certification process for NFPA-compliant boots is very rigorous. Most of
the major boot manufacturers today manufacture at least one model of boots certified to
the NFPA 1977 standard. Manufacturers of NFPA-certified boots must pay a fee to
submit samples of their product to an independent test facility for re-certification
annually.
25
Section 4: Summary of Significant Findings
Traditional Wildland Firefighter Boots
The standard Vibram lug-sole logger-style boots manufactured by White’s, Nick’s,
Drew’s, Wesco, Danner, and other long-established manufacturers:



Have a good track record of protecting the feet and lower legs of wildland
firefighters from wildland fire hazards.
Provide some ankle support and protection against sprains.
Are capable of tolerating harsh fireline environmental conditions without
breaking down prematurely, and typically withstand 2 or more years of fireline
use before needing repairs or replacement.
NFPA 1977 Standard
White’s, Nick’s, Drew’s, Wesco, Danner, and other long-established manufacturers of
firefighter boots each manufacture at least one model of boot that complies with the
NFPA 1977 Standard on Protective Clothing and Equipment for Wildland Firefighting
(2005 edition).
NFPA 1977-compliant boots are generally more expensive than similar boots that are
non-compliant because of the costs of some NFPA-mandated materials, labels, and
testing/certification fees.
A relatively light weight NFPA 1977-compliant wildland firefighter boot is manufactured
by a European company called Haix (pronounced ‘hikes’).
The NFPA 1977 standard is the only standard for wildland firefighter boots that contains
detailed supporting definitions. All other standards used by the Federal land management
agencies require supervisors to make subjective interpretations.
OSHA Standard for PPE
OSHA does not require Federal employers to purchase “normal work boots” or “logging
boots” for wildland firefighters.
If the NFPA 1977 standard for wildland firefighter boots is endorsed by Federal land
management agencies, OSHA would probably regard wildland firefighting boots as
“specialty” boots, meaning that Federal employers would be required to provide boots for
firefighters.
26
Fireline Handbook Standard
Under the heading of “Fireline Clothing and Personal Protective Equipment (PPE),” the
NWCG Fireline Handbook states “(a)ll PPE must meet or exceed NFPA 1977 Standard
on Protective Clothing and Equipment for Firefighters (current edition).” Boots are one
of the PPE items identified in this section.
The current NWCG Fireline Handbook requirement for NFPA 1977-compliant boots
exceeds the current Red Book standard. Agencies have only required compliance with the
Red Book standard.
Red Book Standard
This is the current Red Book standard for wildland firefighter footwear:
8-inch high, lace-type exterior leather work boots with non-slip, Vibram type, meltresistant soles. The 8-inch height requirement is measured from the bottom of the heel to
the top of the boot. Alaska is exempt from the Vibram-type sole requirement. All boots
that meet the footwear standard as described above are authorized for firefighting.
The intent of the term “Vibram type” in the standard is unclear. The Vibram corporation
makes many kinds of outsoles, most of which are not melt-resistant or designed for
firefighting. Other companies besides Vibram make melt-resistant boot soles; this portion
of the definition appears to preclude their use by firefighters. Changing the wording from
“Vibram type” to “lug type” would make this portion of the standard more descriptive
and generic.
Without supporting definitions to describe what combination of features makes a sole
“melt-resistant,” fire supervisors are unable to determine if a firefighter’s boots meet this
portion of the standard. The La Sportiva delamination problem has demonstrated that, in
addition to the sole, the material used to attach the sole to the upper also needs to be heat
resistant.
The height measurement portion of the Red Book standard:

May not be an appropriate way to measure the height of wildland firefighter boots
because it includes the heel.

Does not clearly identify whether the highest or lowest point of a boot’s top line
should be used to determine a boot’s height measurement.
Adopting the following language from the NFPA 1977 standard would eliminate
questions about boot height measurement: The height shall be determined by measuring
inside the boot from the center of the insole at the heel up to a perpendicular reference
line extending across the width of the boot at the lowest point of the top line.
27
Mountaineering Boots
The La Sportiva Glacier is the mountaineering boot most frequently worn by wildland
firefighters. A small percentage of firefighters wear other La Sportiva boots such as the
Lhotse, or mountaineering boots made by Scarpa and other manufacturers.
The top lines of traditional logger-style boots used for wildland firefighting are nearly
perpendicular to the lower leg. The top lines of the La Sportiva boots and many other
mountaineering boots angle downward from front to rear; there may be an inch or more
difference in height between the front and back of the top line of such boots.
When measured from the bottom of the boot heel, the lowest point of the top line on a
pair of size 10 men’s La Sportiva Glacier boots is 7.50 inches. The highest point of the
top line is 8.50 inches. If the NFPA 1977 standard is applied, the height of the same boot
would be just 6.25 inches, 1.75 inches shorter than the minimum requirement.
Smaller sizes of men’s and women’s La Sportiva boots are even shorter. Men’s La
Sportiva Glacier boots smaller than size 7 and women’s La Sportiva Glacier boots
smaller than size 8 are not tall enough to meet the Red Book height requirement for
wildland firefighter boots.
Numerous anecdotal accounts indicate that the soles of La Sportiva boots may delaminate
after relatively short exposures to burning vegetation.
The La Sportiva company is aware of the problem with sole delamination and is
exploring improvements for future models of La Sportiva boots. Other potential
modifications La Sportiva is considering include increasing the height of the Glacier
model’s upper.
La Sportiva does not manufacture any boot models that are compliant with the NFPA
1977 standard. The company has not indicated plans to do so in the future.
The wearing of La Sportiva and other mountaineering boots on wildland fires is a recent
trend, and detailed injury data on firefighters wearing these boots is not available. For
these reasons, it is not clear whether mountaineering boots such as the La Sportiva
Glacier boots provide an acceptable level of protection for the feet and lower legs of
wildland firefighters.
Because of their short track record, and because detailed injury data is not available, it is
not clear whether mountaineering boots such as the La Sportiva Glacier provide
“adequate ankle support” or protection from sprains.
28
Hazards
The term “adequate ankle support” is used in several agency policies without supporting
information describing the combinations of boot features that would provide adequate
ankle support.
Boots providing some level of “armoring” against rocks, sticks, and tool strikes above the
ankle is desirable. Single-layer leather uppers and tongues cushion and distribute
moderate impacts better than a single layer of synthetic material such as ballistic nylon,
Cordura, etc.
Interagency aviation and chain-saw safety policies require PPE (trousers or chaps) to
overlap the boot top. These policies help ensure that employees’ lower legs are protected
from flash fire or chain-saw injuries. If the required boot height is lowered, it will be
more difficult to ensure that employees’ lower legs are protected in these situations.
The ability of boot soles to attenuate or absorb shock is an important issue that has not
been well researched in relation to wildland firefighter footwear. However, the military
and others have conducted studies showing that footwear with superior shock attenuation
reduced hiking-induced bone and soft-tissue injuries to the feet and legs (Milgrom &
others 1992).
The effects of the weight of footwear on the performance and endurance of wildland
firefighters has not been well researched. The military and other organizations have
conducted studies indicating that persons hiking with lighter footwear will expend less
energy than those with heavier footwear (Jones & others 1983).
Shock attenuation and boot weight deserve careful consideration when considering
changes to wildland firefighter boot standards. Some boots provide exceptional
protection from external fireline hazards yet leave the wearer prone to repetitive shock
injuries and unnecessary energy expenditure.
There is a large body of existing data on footwear shock attenuation and the negative
effects of footwear weight. The Federal land management agencies can gain an increased
understanding of these issues by benchmarking off previous studies conducted by the
military and others.
For fire managers in fire-prone wetlands, keeping firefighters’ feet dry may be a more
important safety consideration than protecting their feet from fire hazards. The amount of
exposure to wet environmental conditions is a risk factor that should be considered when
determining appropriate footwear for firefighters who regularly work in fire-prone
wetlands.
29
Boot Components
Hundreds of footwear companies manufacture boots. Most boots do not come with a
detailed list of components and materials.
NFPA 1977-certified boots must be made from FR components, are certified as such, and
contain an identifying label.
Inexpensive boots sometimes feature synthetic materials that look nearly identical to real
leather. Some of these are not FR. They may break down when exposed to moderate
levels of heat.
Synthetic “leather” boot materials can become a safety issue if boots melt or deform after
being exposed to temperatures normally encountered on wildland fires.
The Fireline Handbook and Red Book PPE standards require that materials on the outside
of boots be all leather.
Although NFPA 1977-compliant boots generally feature a leather exterior, the standard
does not require that NFPA-certified boots be made of leather. A boot’s exterior could be
made from other FR materials and meet the NFPA 1977 Standard.
Unless an employee happens to own a pair of NFPA 1977-compliant boots, land
management agency field supervisors do not have a way to determine whether all
components of any given employee’s boots are FR.
Individually testing and researching every available boot to determine its components and
suitability for wildland firefighting would be an impossible task for land management
agencies.
30
Section 5: Some Management Options
1. Retain existing Red Book standard.
Does not resolve current inability of field supervisors to determine whether an
employee’s boots may include materials that break down rapidly when exposed to heat.
Does not resolve questions of the appropriateness of measuring boot height from the
bottom of the heel.
Does not resolve questions of the appropriateness of measuring a boot’s top line at the
highest point.
Does not resolve questions about the ability of mountaineering boots to protect the lower
legs and feet.
Does not address durability/safety issues related to delamination of La Sportiva soles and
other mountaineering boot soles when they are exposed to heat.
Would allow continued use of La Sportiva and other mountaineering boots by wildland
firefighters who wear larger boots.


The current Red Book height measurement definition prevents people with smaller
feet from wearing La Sportiva and other mountaineering boots for firefighting,
creating an issue of fairness for some firefighters.
Banning the La Sportiva boots would bring repercussions from firefighters who
have purchased and wear them.
2. Adopt language from the NFPA 1977 standard for measuring height of wildland
firefighter boots that would make the Red Book standard less subjective.
Still leaves questions unanswered about identification of “synthetic leathers” and other
individual boot components.
Adopting language from the NFPA 1977 standard for boot height measurement would
eliminate La Sportiva and other similar mountaineering boots from fireline use.
3. Adopt entire NFPA 1977 standard for wildland firefighter boots as the Red Book
standard.
Most wildland firefighter boots do not meet this standard.
Most manufacturers of logger-style boots also make a NFPA 1977-compliant model.
NFPA 1977- certified boots generally cost more than similar boots that are not NFPA
compliant.
31
Lighter weight NFPA 1977-compliant boots such as the Haix Wildfire U.S. may provide
some firefighters a suitable alternative to traditional logger-style boots.
If agencies mandate use of NFPA 1977-certified boots by wildland firefighters, OSHA
would likely interpret NFPA 1977-compliant boots as “specialty” PPE under OSHA
Subpart 1910.132. Such a determination would probably require agencies to purchase
boots for employees.
4. Lower boot height measurement requirement to permit any firefighter to wear La
Sportiva and other mountaineering boots regardless of foot size.
Does not resolve current inability of field supervisors to determine whether an
employee’s boots may include materials that rapidly break down when exposed to heat.
Does not resolve questions about the ability of mountaineering boots to protect the lower
legs and feet.
Does not address durability/safety issues related to delamination of La Sportiva soles and
other mountaineering boot soles when they are exposed to heat.
5. Create clear, supporting definitions or eliminate the subjective requirement
“sufficient ankle support” from agency and interagency policy documents.
The current definition is so subjective it serves no useful purpose.
6. Resolve conflicts between agency and interagency boot policies.
Land management agencies should review handbooks, manuals, and guides to ensure
that agency policies do not conflict with interagency policies related to firefighter boots.
Agency policies may exceed, but should not be less than interagency standards.
The NWCG Fireline Handbook requires PPE to be NFPA 1977-compliant, which
conflicts with the Red Book. This conflict should be resolved.
Summary
While heavy leather boots do a satisfactory job of protecting firefighters from fire and
other external hazards, their weight and sole composition may contribute to long term
bone and joint injuries. Anyone contemplating policy changes that will affect wildland
firefighter footwear should consider shock attenuation and weight along with protection
from external hazards.
32
Appendix A
NFPA 1977
Standard on Protective Clothing and Equipment for Wildland Fire
Fighting
2005 Edition
3.3* General Definitions.
3.3.29 Footwear. See 3.3.103, Wildland Fire Fighting Protective Footwear.
3.3.30 Footwear Upper. That portion of the footwear element above the sole, heel, and
insole.
3.3.90 Throat. The center of the footwear entrance area behind the gusset, from its top
line to the lowest point where it attaches to the vamp.
3.3.91 Top Line. The top edge of the protective footwear that includes the tongue,
gusset, quarter, collar, and shaft.
3.3.97 Wear Surface. The bottom of the footwear sole, including the heel.
3.3.99 Wildland Fire Fighting Chain Saw Protection. Items of protective equipment
that provides protection to the legs, or to the lower torso and legs, excluding the ankles
and feet.
3.3.103 Wildland Fire Fighting Protective Footwear. Items of protective clothing that
provides protection to the foot, ankle, and lower leg.
5.4 Protective Footwear.
5.4.1 Product Label Requirements.
5.4.1.1 Each footwear pair shall have a product label or labels permanently and
conspicuously attached to each boot half pair. At least one product label shall be
conspicuously located on or inside each boot when the boot is properly assembled with
all components in place.
5.4.1.2 Configuration of the product label and attachment of the product label shall not
interfere with the legibility of any printed portion of the product label.
5.4.1.3 Multiple label pieces shall be permitted in order to carry all the statements and
information required to be on the product label.
33
5.4.1.4* The certification organization’s label, symbol, or identifying mark shall be
permanently attached to the product label or shall be part of the product label.
5.4.1.5 All worded portions of the required product label shall be printed at least in
English.
5.4.1.6 Symbols and other pictorial graphic representations shall be permitted to be used
to supplement or in place of worded statements on the product label(s) where
explanations for symbols and pictorial graphic representations are explained in the user
information.
5.4.1.7 The following statement shall be printed legibly on the product label, and all
letters shall be at least 2.5 mm (3⁄32 in.) high:
“THIS WILDLAND FIRE FIGHTING PROTECTIVE
FOOTWEAR MEETS THE REQUIREMENTS OF
NFPA 1977, STANDARD ON PROTECTIVE
CLOTHING AND EQUIPMENT FOR WILDLAND
FIRE FIGHTING, 2005 EDITION.
DO NOT REMOVE THIS LABEL.”
5.4.1.8 At least the following information shall also be printed legibly on the product
label, with all letters at least 2mm (1⁄16 in.) high:
(1) Manufacturer’s name, identification, or designation
(2) Manufacturer’s address
(3) Country of manufacture
(4) Manufacturer’s footwear identification number, lot number, or serial number
(5) Month and year of manufacture (not coded)
(6) Model or style name, number, or design
(7) Footwear size and width
(8) Cleaning precautions
5.4.2 User Information.
5.4.2.1 The footwear manufacturer shall provide at least the user information that is
specified in 5.4.2.5 with each footwear pair.
5.4.2.2 The footwear manufacturer shall attach the required user information or
packaging containing the user information to the boot pair in such a manner that it is not
possible to use the boots without being aware of the availability of the information.
5.4.2.3 The required user information or packaging containing the user information shall
be attached to the boot pair so that a deliberate action is necessary to remove it. The
footwear manufacturer shall provide notice that the user information is to be removed
ONLY by the end user.
34
5.4.2.4 Symbols and other pictorial graphic representations shall be permitted to be used
to supplement or in place of worded statements where explanations for symbols and
pictorial graphic representations are explained in the user information.
5.4.2.5 The footwear manufacturer shall provide at least the following instructions and
information with each footwear pair:
(1) Pre-use information
(a) Safety considerations
(b) Limitations of use
(c) Boot marking recommendations and restrictions
(d) A statement that most performance properties of the boots cannot be tested by the
user in the field
(e) Warranty information
(2) Preparation for use
(a) Sizing/adjustment
(b) Recommended storage practices
(3) Inspection frequency and details
(4) Donning/doffing
(a) Donning and doffing procedures
(b) Sizing and adjustment procedures
(c) Interface issues
(5) Proper use consistent with NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Program, and 29 CFR 1910.132, “Personal Protective Equipment”
(6) Maintenance and cleaning
(a) Cleaning instructions and precautions with a statement advising users not to use boots
that are not thoroughly cleaned and dried
(b) Maintenance criteria and methods of repair where applicable
(c) Decontamination procedures
(7) Retirement and disposal criteria and considerations
5.4.2.6 Manufacturers shall be required to establish and provide, upon request, a size
conversion chart for each model or style of protective footwear based on toe length, arch
length, and foot width as measured on the Brannock Scientific Foot Measuring Device.
6.4 Protective Footwear Item Design Requirements.
6.4.1 Footwear items shall have at least the applicable design requirements specified in
this section where inspected by the certification organization as specified in Section 4.3.
6.4.2 Footwear items shall consist of a sole with heel, upper, insole, and shank. The
quarter section of the boot shall be designed to provide an adjustable, snug fit for support
around the ankle and lower leg.
35
6.4.3 The heel breast shall not be less than 13 mm (1⁄2 in.). The heel breasting angle shall
not be less than 90 degrees nor more than 135 degrees relative to the sole and as shown in
Figure 6.4.3.
6.4.4 Footwear height shall be a minimum of 200 mm (8 in.).
6.4.4.1 The height shall be determined by measuring inside the boot from the center of
the insole at the heel up to a perpendicular reference line extending across the width of
the boot at the lowest point of the top line.
6.4.4.2 Removable insole inserts shall not be removed prior to measurement.
6.4.5 Metal parts shall not penetrate from the outside into the inside at any point, unless
covered.
6.4.6 Where used, there shall be a minimum of four metal stud hooks on each side of the
eyerow, and they shall meet the requirements of 7.4.2 and 7.4.8.
6.4.7 Eyelets shall be constructed of coated steel, solid brass, brass-coated nickel, or
nickel.
6.4.8 All thread used to manufacture footwear shall be made of inherently flame-resistant
fiber.
6.4.9 Sizing.
6.4.9.1 Protective footwear shall be available in all of the following sizes:
(1) Men’s: 7–13, including half sizes and a minimum of three widths
(2) Women’s: 5–10, including half sizes and a minimum of three widths
7.4 Protective Footwear Item Performance Requirements.
7.4.1 Footwear shall be tested for resistance to heat as specified in Section 8.4, Heat and
Thermal Shrinkage Resistance Test, and, excluding laces, shall have no part of the
footwear melt, shall have no delamination of any part of the footwear, and shall have all
hardware remain functional.
7.4.2 Footwear metal parts shall be tested for resistance to corrosion as specified in
Section 8.27, Corrosion Resistance Test. Metals inherently resistant to corrosion —
including but not limited to stainless steel, brass, copper, aluminum, and zinc—shall
show no more than light surface-type corrosion or oxidation. Ferrous metals shall show
no corrosion of the base metals. Hardware shall remain functional.
7.4.3 Footwear shall be tested for resistance to cut as specified in Section 8.23, Cut
Resistance Test, and shall have a distance of blade travel greater than 25 mm (1 in.).
36
7.4.4 Footwear shall be tested for resistance to puncture as specified in Section 8.24,
Puncture Resistance Test, and shall have a puncture force of not less than 59 N (13 lbf).
7.4.5 Footwear sole and heel composites, excluding the sole and heel composites of
caulked boots, shall be tested for resistance to abrasion as specified in Section 8.18,
Protective Footwear Abrasion Test, and shall have an abrasion resistance rating of not
less than 100 NBS index.
7.4.6 Footwear shall be tested for resistance to conductive heat as specified in Section
8.28, Footwear Conductive Heat Resistance Test, and the footwear inside sole surface
temperature shall not exceed 44°C (111°F).
7.4.7 Footwear sole composites shall be tested for slip resistance as specified inASTM F
489, Standard Test Method for Using a James Machine, and shall have a minimum static
coefficient of friction value of 0.5.
7.4.8 Footwear eyelets and stud hooks shall be tested for attachment strength as specified
in Section 8.29, Eyelet and Stud Post Attachment Test, and shall have a minimum
detachment strength of 294 N (66 lbf).
7.4.9 Footwear, without laces in place, shall be tested for resistance to flame as specified
in Section 8.14, Flame Resistance Test for Protective Footwear, and shall not have an
afterflame greater than 2 seconds and shall not melt, drip, or ignite.
7.4.10 Footwear product labels shall be tested for legibility as specified in Section 8.31,
Label Durability and Legibility Test 1, and shall not be torn, shall remain in place, and
shall be legible to the unaided eye.
7.4.11 All sewing thread utilized in the construction of footwear shall be tested for
resistance to melting as specified in Section 8.9, Thread Heat Resistance Test, and shall
not ignite, melt, or char.
8.4.13 Specific Testing Requirement for Protective Footwear.
8.4.13.1 Samples for conditioning shall be whole boots. Footwear specimens shall
include sole, heel, and upper.
8.4.13.2 Conditioning shall be performed as specified in 8.1.1.
8.4.13.3 The footwear specimen shall be size 9.
8.4.13.4 Footwear specimens shall be filled with 4 mm (3⁄16 in.) perforated soda-line
glass beads. Any closures shall be fastened.
8.4.13.5 The test thermocouple shall be positioned so that it is level with the horizontal
centerline of a footwear test specimen.
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The thermocouple shall be equidistant between the vertical centerline of a footwear test
specimen placed in the middle of the oven and the oven wall where the airflow enters the
test chamber.
8.4.13.6 The minimum dimensions for the test oven specified in 8.4.4.1 shall be 610 mm
× 610 mm × 610 mm (24 in. × 24 in. × 24 in.).
8.4.13.7 The protective footwear test specimen shall be placed in the center of the test
oven with the centerline of the front of the specimen facing the airflow.
8.4.13.8 Following removal from the oven, the specimen shall be allowed to cool at room
temperature for not less than 5 minutes, +15/−0 seconds.
8.4.13.9 Each tested specimen shall be reconditioned as specified in 8.1.1 and then reexamined inside and outside for separation and functionality of hardware on the
footwear. The functionality of each part of the footwear shall be reported as pass or fail.
Failure of any one part shall constitute failure for the entire sample.
8.4.13.10 Testing shall be performed as specified in 8.4.2 through 8.4.7. Thermal
shrinkage shall not be measured.
8.14 Flame Resistance Test for Protective Footwear.
8.14.1 Application. This test method shall apply to protective footwear.
8.14.2 Specimens. Three complete footwear items shall be tested.
8.14.3 Sample Preparation.
8.14.3.1 Samples for conditioning shall be whole boots.
8.14.3.2 Specimens shall be conditioned as specified in 8.1.1.
8.14.4 Apparatus.
8.14.4.1 The test apparatus shall consist of a burner, crucible tongs, support stand, utility
clamp, stopwatch, butane gas, gas regulator valve system, and measuring scale.
(1) The burner shall be a high-temperature, liquefied-type Fisher burner.
(2) The stopwatch or other timing device shall measure the burning time to the nearest
0.1 second.
(3) The butane shall be of commercial grade, 99.0 percent pure or better.
(4) The gas regulator system shall consist of a control valve system with a delivery rate
designed to furnish gas to the burner under a pressure of 17.3 kPa, ±1.7 kPa (2.5 psi,
±0.25 psi) at the reducing valve. The flame height shall be adjusted at the reducing valve
to produce a pressure of 0.7 kPa, ±0.07 kPa (0.1 psi, ±0.01 psi).
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8.14.4.2 A freestanding flame height indicator shall be used to assist in adjusting the
burner flame height. The indicator shall mark a flame height of 75mm (3 in.) above the
top of the burner.
8.14.4.3 A specimen support assembly shall be used to support the footwear specimen
above the burner flame.
8.14.5 Procedure.
8.14.5.1 The burner shall be ignited, and the test flame shall be adjusted to a height of 75
mm (3 in.) with the gas on/off valve fully open and the air supply completely and
permanently off, so that the flame height is closely controlled.
8.14.5.2 The 75 mm (3 in.) flame height shall be obtained by adjusting the orifice in the
bottom of the burner so that the top of the flame is level with the marked flame height
indicator.
8.14.5.3 With the specimen mounted in the support assembly, the burner shall be moved
so that the flame contacts the specimen at a distance of 38 mm (11⁄2 in.) at the angles in
the areas shown in Figure 8.14.5.3.
8.14.5.4 The burner flame shall be applied to the specimen for 12 seconds. After 12
seconds, the burner shall be removed.
8.14.5.5 The afterflame time shall be measured as the time, in seconds to the nearest 0.2
second, that the specimen continues to flame after the burner is removed from the flame.
8.14.5.6 Following the flame exposure, the specimen shall be removed and examined for
burn-through.
8.14.5.7 Each layer of the specimen shall be examined for melting or dripping.
8.14.6 Report.
8.14.6.1 The afterflame time shall be recorded and reported for each specimen.
8.14.6.2 The afterflame time shall be reported to the nearest 0.2 second.
8.14.6.3 Observations of burn-through, melting, or dripping for each specimen shall be
reported.
8.14.7 Interpretation. Pass or fail performance shall be based on afterflame time and any
observed burn-through, melting, or dripping.
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8.23 Cut Resistance Test.
8.23.1 Application.
8.23.1.1 This test method shall apply to protective gloves and footwear uppers.
8.23.1.3 Modifications to this test method for evaluation of protective footwear upper
materials shall be as specified in 8.23.8.
8.23.2 Specimens.
8.23.2.1 A minimum of three specimens shall be tested.
8.23.3 Sample Preparation.
8.23.3.1 Samples for conditioning shall be whole gloves or footwear uppers.
8.23.3.2 Specimens shall be tested after conditioning as specified in 8.1.1.
8.23.4 Procedure.
8.23.4.1 Specimens shall be evaluated in accordance with ASTM F 1790, Standard Test
Method for Measuring Cut Resistance of Materials Used in Protective Clothing, as
modified by 8.23.7 and 8.23.8.
8.23.5 Report.
8.23.5.1 The distance of blade travel shall be recorded and reported to the nearest 1 mm
(1⁄32 in.) for each sample specimen.
8.23.5.2 The average distance of blade travel in millimeters (inches) shall be calculated,
recorded, and reported for all specimens tested.
8.23.6 Interpretation.
8.23.6.1 The average cut force shall be used to determine pass or fail performance.
8.23.8 Specific Requirements for Testing Footwear Uppers.
8.23.8.1 Samples for conditioning shall be whole footwear items.
8.23.8.2 Specimens shall be taken from the parts of the footwear upper that provides
uniform thickness, and shall not include seams.
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8.23.8.3 Cut resistance shall be performed under a load of 400 g (14 oz).
8.24 Puncture Resistance Test.
8.24.1 Application.
8.24.1.1 This test method shall apply to protective gloves and footwear uppers.
8.24.1.3 Modifications to this test method for testing footwear uppers shall be as
specified in 8.24.8.
8.24.2 Specimens.
8.24.2.1 A minimum of three specimens measuring at least 150 mm (6 in.) square shall
be tested.
8.24.3 Specimen Preparation.
8.24.3.1 Specimens shall be tested after conditioning as specified in 8.1.1.
8.24.4 Procedure.
8.24.4.1 All specimens shall be tested in accordance with ASTM F 1342, Standard Test
Method for Protective Clothing Material Resistance to Puncture.
8.24.5 Report. The puncture force in newtons (poundforce) shall be recorded and
reported for each specimen.
8.24.6 Interpretation.
8.24.6.1 The puncture force of each specimen shall be evaluated to determine pass or fail.
8.24.6.2 Any one puncture failing this test shall constitute failing performance.
8.24.8 Specific Requirements for Testing Footwear Uppers.
8.24.8.1 Specimens shall consist of each composite of footwear item used in the actual
footwear construction, with the layers arranged in proper order. Specimens shall be taken
from the thinnest portion of the footwear upper.
8.24.8.2 Testing shall be performed as specified in 8.24.2
through 8.24.6.
8.28 Footwear Conductive Heat Resistance Test.
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8.28.1 Specimens.
8.28.1.1 A minimum of three complete footwear items shall be tested.
8.28.2 Sample Preparation.
8.28.2.1 Samples for conditioning shall be whole footwear.
8.28.2.2 Specimens shall be preconditioned as specified in 8.1.1.
8.28.3 Apparatus.
8.28.3.1 The apparatus shall consist of an iron plate measuring 25 mm × 150 mm × 460
mm (1 in. × 6 in. × 18 in.) and an oven capable of heating the plate to a temperature of
500°C (932°F), a Type J or Type K thermocouple, and a meter to read the thermocouple
temperature.
8.28.4 Procedure.
8.28.4.1 The thermocouple shall be affixed to the insole surface of the specimen next to
the foot, directly above the ball of the foot. The thermocouple shall be taped to the
surface with electrical tape to hold it onto the insole surface.
8.28.4.2 The plate shall be heated to a temperature of 500°C, ±10°C (932°F, ±18°F) and
shall maintain this temperature throughout the test period.
8.28.4.3 The specimen shall be filled with 4.55 kg (10 lb) of 10 mm (3⁄8 in.) steel balls.
The weight of the steel balls shall be evenly distributed inside the boot. The specimen
shall be placed on the plate in the upright position for 30 seconds.
8.28.4.4 The thermocouple temperature shall be recorded 30 seconds, +2/−0 seconds,
after the specimen is placed on the heated metal plate.
8.28.5 Report.
8.28.5.1 The temperature at 30 seconds of exposure shall be recorded and reported for
each specimen.
8.28.5.2 The average temperature at 30 seconds of exposure for all specimens shall also
be calculated, recorded, and reported.
8.28.6 Interpretation.
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8.28.6.1 The average temperature at 30 seconds of exposure for all specimens shall be
used to determine pass or fail performance.
8.29 Eyelet and Stud Post Attachment Test.
8.29.1 Application.
8.29.1.1 This test method shall apply to protective footwear eyelets and stud posts.
8.29.2 Specimens.
8.29.2.1 Specimens shall total two eyelets and two stud posts on three separate footwear
items.
8.29.2.2 Specimens shall be removed from the footwear and shall be 25 mm × 50 mm (1
in. × 2 in.).
8.29.3 Sample Preparation.
8.29.3.1 Samples for conditioning shall be whole footwear.
8.29.3.2 The eyelets or stud post specimens shall be conditioned as specified in 8.1.1.
8.29.4 Apparatus.
8.29.4.1 A tensile testing machine shall be used with a traverse rate of 50 mm/min (2
in./min). Clamps measuring 25 mm × 38 mm (1 in. × 11⁄2 in.) shall have gripping
surfaces that are parallel, flat, and capable of preventing slippage of the specimen during
the test.
8.29.5 Procedure.
8.29.5.1 The stud post or eyelet puller shall be inserted or attached to the upper position
of the tensile machine.
8.29.5.2 The traverse rate shall be set at 50 mm/min (2 in./ min).
8.29.5.3 The test eyelet or stud post shall be attached using the appropriate puller fixture.
8.29.5.4 The eyelet stay shall be clamped, but clamping the metal portion of the eyelets
of stud hooks in the lower clamps shall not be permitted.
8.29.5.5 The distance between the clamps and the stud hooks or eyelets shall be 2 mm to
3 mm (5⁄64 in. to 1⁄8 in.).
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8.29.5.6 The test shall then be started.
8.29.6 Report.
8.29.6.1 The force will reach a peak, decline slightly, and then increase to complete
failure; however, the value at which the force first declines shall be recorded and reported
as the detachment strength, because this is the initial failure point where separation of the
material around the eyelet or the stud post occurs.
8.29.6.2 Each detachment strength force shall be calculated, recorded, and reported.
8.29.7 Interpretation.
8.29.7.1 Each detachment strength force shall be evaluated to determine pass or fail
performance.
8.29.7.2 Any single detachment strength force less than 294 N (66 lbf) shall constitute
failing performance.
8.31.9 Specific Requirements for Testing Footwear Labels.
8.31.9.1 For testing label legibility after abrasion, specimens shall be individual labels.
8.31.9.2 A minimum of four specimens of each type of label shall be tested for abrasion.
8.31.9.3 Two specimens shall be edge specimens.
8.31.9.4 Where labels have areas for “write-in” information, two additional specimens
shall be tested that include those areas, with sample information written in.
8.31.9.5 For testing label legibility after convective heat exposure, specimens shall be
complete footwear with labels attached.
8.31.9.6 Sample conditioning shall be the same conditioning as specified for the
respective tests.
8.31.9.7 Specimens shall be tested separately for legibility after abrasion and heat
durability tests as specified in 8.31.4.2 and 8.31.4.3, respectively.
44
References
Code of Federal Regulations Title 29 Volume 9 Part 1960; Basic Program Elements for
Federal Employee Occupational Safety and Health Programs and Related Matters
OSHA Regulations Part 1910; Personal Protective Equipment 1910.132
OSHA Final Rule 72:64341-64430 Employer Payment for Personal Protective
Equipment
Interagency Standards for Fire and Aviation Operations (Red Book)
Interagency Helicopter Operations Guide (IHOG)
Forest Service Manual 6700; Chapter 6716 Personal Protective Equipment
USFS Health & Safety Code Handbook
Bureau of Land Management Job Hazard Analysis Databank
National Fire and Aviation Executive Board Memorandum (June 2006)
National Fire Protection Association 1977 Standard on Protective Clothing and
Equipment for Wildland Firefighting- 2005 Edition
The Shock Attenuation Characteristics of Four Different Insoles When Worn in a
Military Boot during Running and Marching; Carol Windle, Sarah Gregory, Sharon
Dixon 1998
Prevention of Overuse Injuries of the Foot by Improved Shoe Shock Attenuation: A
Randomized Prospective Study; Milgrom, Charles; Finestone, Aharon; Shlamkovitch, N;
1992
The Energy Cost and Heart Rate Response of Trained and Untrained Subjects Walking
and Running in Shoes and Boots; Bruce Jones, Michael Toner, William Daniels, Joseph
Knapik 1983
The Energy Cost of Load Carriage on the Feet during Running; Edward Frederick 1985
Biomechanical Analysis of Military Boots Phase 3: Recommendations for the Design of
Future Military Boots; Joseph Hamill, Carolyn Bensel 1995
Assessing the need for footwear with protective toecaps for wildland fire operations in
Alberta; Ray Ault 2002
Interview w/ Dick Mangan on history of MTDC relationship w/ NFPA, 2/28/2006
45
Natick Soldier Center site visit and personal communication w/ Mike Holthe, Mechanical
Engineer, 4/5/2006
West Coast Shoe Company factory tour and interview w/ Kris Oman, Wesco Production
Manager, 12/4/2007
About the Author
Tim Lynch has been a Fire & Aviation Project Leader at MTDC since 2001. His
wildland fire career includes experience as an engine supervisor, crew
supervisor, smokejumper, and helicopter rappeller. He is a Division/Group
Supervisor and advisor to the NWCG Safety & Health Working Team, the
Wildland Fire Safety Training Annual Refresher Working Group, the Interagency
Helicopter Rappel Working Group and the Interagency Helicopter Rappel
Equipment & Procedures Committee.
Keywords: wildland firefighter boots, personal protective equipment, steel toe boots,
safety toe boots, shock attenuation, energy cost
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