Water Conservation Techniques
For
Small and Medium Water Systems
Florida Rural Water Association
November 2007
1
Water Conservation Techniques
For
Small and Medium Water Systems
Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 4
Water Conservation in Florida ........................................................................................ 4
Implementing Water Conservation Measures in Conformance with Guiding Principals4
Benefits to Small Utilities Resulting from Effective Water Conservation Practices...... 5
Setting Water Conservation Goals .................................................................................. 6
Water Use Efficiency Measures for Utility Operation ................................................... 7
Per Capita Water Use in Florida ..................................................................................... 7
Water Conservation for Small Utilities........................................................................... 9
The Four Categories of Water Conservation Measures .................................................. 9
Basic Water Conservation Measures ............................................................................ 10
Intermediate Water Conservation Measures ................................................................. 10
Advanced Water Conservation Measures ..................................................................... 10
General Water Conservation Procedures ...................................................................... 11
Basic Water Conservation Measures ............................................................................ 12
Universal Metering for All Customers ......................................................................... 12
Checklist for Universal Metering: ................................................................................ 12
Implementing a Meter Evaluation and Meter Replacement Program .......................... 13
Checklist for Water Sytstem Meter Sizing and Meter Testing Program: .................... 16
Performing a Water System Audit ................................................................................ 17
Checklist for Performing a Water System Audit .......................................................... 17
Initiating a Leak Detection Program ............................................................................. 19
Causes of Pipeline Leaks in Water Distribution Systems ............................................. 20
Leaks Detected by Access Point SWFWMD................................................................ 21
Leak Detection Procedures ........................................................................................... 24
Checklist for a Comprehensive Water Sytstem Leak Detection Program: ................... 25
Water Theft Control and Meter Tampering Program ................................................... 25
Checklist for a Water Theft Control and Meter Tampering Program:.......................... 27
Intermediate Water Conservation Measures ............................................................... 28
Water Conservation Training and Planning for Administrators and City Officials ..... 28
The Conservation Planning Process.............................................................................. 28
Step 1. Specify Conservation Planning Goals .............................................................. 28
Step 2: Develop a Water System Profile....................................................................... 28
Step 3. Prepare a Demand Forecast .............................................................................. 28
Step 4. Describe Planned Facilities ............................................................................... 28
Fundamentals of a Cost of Service Study ..................................................................... 30
Operating Costs for a Small Water System .................................................................. 31
Definition of Variables Used in Water Conservation Pricing ...................................... 31
The Disadvantages of Advanced Conservation Rates .................................................. 34
2
Advanced Conservation Measures ................................................................................ 35
Developing Advanced Conservation Measures ............................................................ 35
Steps in Implementing Community Supported Water Conservation Program ............. 35
Suggestion for Performing a Residential or Commercial Water Audit ........................ 36
Checklist for a Water Theft Control and Meter Tampering Program:.......................... 37
General Conservation Procedures for Utilities ............................................................ 38
Encouraging Customer Conservation Awareness ......................................................... 38
Best Management Conservation Practices for Water Consumers ................................ 38
Community Conservation Education ............................................................................ 39
Partnering in the Community ........................................................................................ 40
Implementing Permanent Water Use Regulations ........................................................ 40
References:....................................................................................................................... 41
3
Introduction
Water Conservation in Florida
Small Florida water utilities are presented with unique challenges with expanding
customers and with dry weather conditions that place stress on existing water supplies.
Implementing water conservation measures can be extremely effective in assisting small
communities in saving water and meeting these water shortage challenges.
The State of Florida’s Water Conservation Initiative includes the following principals:

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Water conservation measures that result in permanent and cost-effective
improvements in water use efficiency
The focus of water conservation should be on the programs that lead to
the largest conservation benefits in the shortest period of time
Water conservation measures should be measured to ensure efficient use
of resources.
Water should be appropriately priced to provide conservation signals to
consumers
Expanded water conservation programs and cost sharing subsidies may be
unrealistic in situations where there are budgetary constraints.
Water conservation must be practices by all users, that is the supplier and
the consumer of water
Implementing Water Conservation Measures in Conformance with Guiding
Principals
Operational water conservation measures can be implemented quickly on the supply
(utility) side and measurement systems that use water meters can easily be applied to
ensure effectiveness. Likewise supply side improvements in billing practices and water
accounting can be implemented quickly in administrative areas with proven results.
The development of pricing signals requires community involvement. Changes in the
pricing of water can be a significant cost to the various users and can lead to complaints.
When pricing signals are targeted at irrigation reductions, these can lead in significant
decreases in planned revenue to the utility. These types of programs must be undertaken
with community involvement and support of the various stakeholders.
Many demand side (customer) water conservation measures have extremely long time
frames to be successfully implement and the pay-back periods can be marginal over the
long-term. Demand side conservation measures must also be evaluated to ensure their
effectiveness. Additionally, small communities typically do not have the financial
resources or the customer base available to them that allows them to finance and
implement comprehensive demand side water conservation programs such as toilet
change-outs or subsidies for low volume appliances. Demand side conservation is
4
typically most successful as part of a comprehensive conservation program where an
assigned conservation coordinator can suggest and guide conservation programs. This
being said, public water conservation education is inexpensive and results in conservation
awareness and public goodwill. Providing water conservation information to water
customers is a highly recommended practice which sets the stage for more
comprehensive future water conservation programs.
The conservation approach suggested by Florida Rural Water Association take into
account these issues and recommend planning and implementation of conservation
strategies in a three tiered approach beginning with those that have been shown to be
immediately effective for small communities. Additionally, Florida Rural Water
Association can assist small communities operationally with the use of its specialized
meter calibration and leak detection equipment that provides needed administrative
information for conservation analysis and planning.
Florida Rural Water Association can also assist small utilities in the financial analysis
portion of water conservation and assist the utility in identifying inefficient water
practices and ineffective rate structures. Florida Rural Water Association assistance can
lead to substantial water savings to the utility at no cost.
Benefits to Small Utilities Resulting from Effective Water Conservation Practices
Unaccounted for water loss can be very expensive to a small utility systems. Table 1
below, illustrates the monthly cost to a small water utility for water loss at an average
cost of $2 per 1000 gallons, a fairly common charge for water use, over a range of
observed unaccounted-for-water loss scenarios:
Table 1
Lost Revenue from Unaccounted-for-Water Loss
Typically Found in Florida Rural Water Association Surveys
Unaccounted
For Water %
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
Monthly Water Production (gallons per day)
100,000
500,000
1 Million
$600
$900
$1,200
$1,500
$1,800
$3,000
$4,500
$6,000
$7,500
$9,000
$6,000
$9,000
$12,000
$15,000
$18,000
Since many small water utilities also provide wastewater service, the revenue loss to a
small utility can be significantly compounded by faulty water meters that are used to
estimate wastewater charges. Table 2 below, illustrates the monthly cost to a small water
utility for an unaccounted-for-water loss at an average meter charge of $2 per 1000
5
gallons for water use and $2.50 per 1,000 gallons for wastewater use, over a range of
observed unaccounted-for-water loss scenarios:
Table 2
Lost Revenue from Unaccounted-for-Water Loss
For Faulty Meters where Utility also Provides Wastewater Service
Typically Found in Florida Rural Water Association Surveys
Monthly Water Production (gallons per day)
Unaccounted 100,000
500,000
1 Million
For Water %
10%
$1,350
$6,750
$13,500
15%
$2,025
$10,125
$20,250
20%
$2,700
$13,500
$27,000
25%
$3,375
$16,875
$33,750
30%
$4,050
$20,250
$40,500
Water conservation is not just a process targeted at reducing the amount of wasted water;
it is also a program that can significantly affect a water system’s physical capacity and
financial health. Water losses can be immediately converted into more revenue to the
utility, but even more importantly, the cost in added water capacity necessary to obtain,
treat, transport and distribute the water can dwarf the revenue losses that are illustrated
above. For example, many Florida waters require expensive treatment processes for small
systems that can easily cost up to $5 million just to dispose of the waste products
produced in the treatment processes. These expenses can be deferred indefinitely with a
good unaccounted-for-water management program.
Setting Water Conservation Goals
Florida Rural Water Association assistance to small water systems begins with the setting
of basic water conservation goals. Goals are set in working with water systems in
identifying the expected benefits that the water system can achieve.
Planning goals are designed by collaborative discussions with utility leaders and elected
officials and are developed based on the administration, operation, maintenance and
condition of the water system. Planning goals often include eliminating, downsizing, or
postponing the need for capital projects; extending the life of existing facilities; avoiding
new source water development costs; improving drought or emergency preparedness; and
protecting and preserving environmental resources. These goals are achieved by an
inspection of water system facilities and records and collection of information obtained
from key utility staff. Information can be collected efficiently by using the FRWA Water
Conservation checklists that can be completed by the utility’s water system staff.
6
Metrics or measures are set in the planning process to judge success. Generally the
metrics are targeted at improving unaccounted-for-water efficiencies and/or reducing
average per capita water use.
Water Use Efficiency Measures for Utility Operation
The American Water Works Association (AWWA) has determined that unaccounted for
water loss in water supply systems of 10–12 percent as acceptable. Unfortunately
unaccounted for water of greater than 30 percent in water systems that do not have water
loss programs to identify leaks, use inaccurate or broken meters, allow unmetered water,
have no tampering and theft detection and deterrent policies and/or use ineffective billing
practices, are common.
Per Capita Water Use in Florida
Water use by the public sector was described in a paper published in 1992 by Richard
Marella of USGS for the Florida Department of Environmental Regulation, titled.
“Factors that Affect Public-Supply Water Use in Florida, with a Section on Projected
Water Use to the Year 2020.” The table below identifies the per capita public water use
by county in Florida. The average water use was determined to be 178 gallons per capita
per day and the average residential-only water use was determined to be 123 gallons per
capita per day. It is generally accepted that a residential per capita water use of below 120
gallons per capita per day represents a water system where some water conservation
practices are in place. Water systems with a per capita use of under 100 gallons per capita
per day generally have mature and comprehensive conservation practices in place.
The Table below shows the per capita use of water in all counties in Florida recorded in
1987 in the above-mentioned study.
7
Table 3
Public Water Use by Population
For 1987 Florida in gallons per capita per day
Alachua
Baker
Bay
Bradford
Bravard
Broward
Calhoun
Charlotte
Citrus
Clay
Collier
Columbia
Dade
De Soto
Dixie
Duvall
Escambia
Flagler
Franklin
Gadsen
Gilchrist
Glades
Gulf
161
146
233
172
149
180
149
110
162
142
299
189
203
102
154
168
158
146
198
146
272
115
160
Hamilton
Hardee
Hedry
Hernando
Highlands
Hillsborough
Holmes
Inian River
Jackson
Jefferson
Lafayette
Lake
Lee
Leon
Levy
Liberty
Madison
Manatee
Marion
Martin
Monroe
Nassua
155
151
176
135
155
150
197
243
157
214
171
193
143
167
170
154
213
138
160
195
179
171
Okaloosa
Okeechobee
Orange
Osceola
Palm Beach
Pasco
Pinellas
Polk
Putnam
St. Johns
St. Lucie
Santa Rosa
Sarasota
Seminole
Sumter
Suwanee
Taylor
Union
Volusia
Wakulla
Walton
Washington
158
131
198
138
222
109
140
192
157
130
151
142
152
176
116
153
151
153
138
110
127
150
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Water Conservation for Small Utilities
The Four Categories of Water Conservation Measures
Florida Rural Water Association has organized some of the more common water
conservation measures that have been demonstrated to be effective for small water
system into three parts. These categories consist of: Basic Water Conservation,
Intermediate Water Conservation, and Advanced Water Conservation measures, and
General Water Conservation Procedures that can be implemented in phases by a small
water utility as part of a long-term water conservation plan.
The Basic Water Conservation Measures are those measures that can be
immediately implemented by small water systems and are most likely to result in
immediate and measurable water conservation measures. These are also the
conservation measures where Florida Rural Water Association can best assist the
utility in quickly implementing. These measures generally consist of
implementing supply side improvements.
The Intermediate Water Conservation Measures are water conservation
techniques that should be implemented over a longer period and can provide
significant additional water savings. These measures require community support
and evaluation of impacts that they may have on existing water system users by
the modification of existing water rates. When water conservation measures are
successful in this category, water revenue can drop leading to revenue shortfalls.
Florida Rural Water Association can assist the utility in identifying water rates
that meet revenue requirements but minimize the impacts of the potential for
decreases in revenue. These issues should always be addressed in the planning
stages. Intermediate conservation measures generally consist of changes in
administrative practices and changes in rate structures that encourage customer
behavior changes in how water is used.
The Advanced Conservation Measures are those strategies that have been
shown to be effective over the long-term and are part of a community-supported
program that involves participation by customers at all levels. These types of
water conservation measures do not show gains immediately and thus are
typically not immediate focus in an effective conservation plan for a small utility.
These measures are generally part of an overall long-term strategy that includes
dedicated utility staff and measurement systems and subsidies that encourages
direct customer assistance in demand side water reduction.
General Water Conservation Procedures consist of providing information to
customers for the purpose of increasing conservation awareness. These are
inexpensive techniques that are available to a small utility to increase customer
support. They do not generally result in any significant or measurable water
9
conservation gains. These procedures can be implemented at any stage in a
conservation program.
Basic Water Conservation Measures
Basic water conservation measures are operational and result in immediate water
conservation savings to smaller communities. Florida Rural Water Association
recommends that all water systems, including those serving 10,000 or fewer
people consider implementing the following basic guidelines:
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Universal Metering for all Customers
Implementing a Meter Evaluation and Meter Replacement Program
Performing a Water System Audit on Classes of Water Customers
Initiating a Water Leak Detection Program
Initiating a Water Loss Control and Meter Tampering Program
Intermediate Water Conservation Measures
Intermediate water conservation measures are administrative and are part of a
longer-term strategy to reduce water use by implementation of both incentives
and disincentives water pricing to affect change in customer water use behavior
patterns. Florida Rural Water Association recommends that all water systems that
have implemented basic water conservation measures or have mature, on-going
water conservation programs in-place, consider implementing the following
supplemental intermediate water conservation measures:
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Water Conservation Training and Planning for Administrators and City Officials
Water Conservation Training for all Water Employees
Performing a Simplified Comparative Costing and Pricing Analysis for Current
and Future Customers
Implementing an Irrigation Pricing Supplement to Current Rates as appropriate
Instituting a Water Conservation Education Program for Customers
Performing water-use audits on large water users
Educating key staff in water conservation measures
Educating Customers in retrofits such as toilets and shower heads
Educating Customers in landscape efficiency, drip irrigation and xeriscaping
Advanced Water Conservation Measures
Advanced water conservation measures are typically part of a very mature water
conservation program where dedicated staff is available to assist customers in making
choices that aid water conservation programs. These programs are part of a longer-term
strategy to reduce water use direct assistance to customers through education and training
of vendors, development of water use regulations and financial incentives. Florida Rural
10
Water Association recommends that type of programs have community support, are well
staffed and funded and implemented as part of a mature, on-going and in-place water
conservation program.
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Dedicated conservation staff person and written conservation program
Financing of replacements of inefficient plumbing fixtures
Adoption of the use of mandatory reclaimed water use for new developments
Partnering with utilities that currently have reclaimed water programs
Implementing permanent seasonal and time of use water regulations
Licensing of landscape contractors to prohibit inefficient system designs and
wasteful irrigation practices
Integration of efficient construction practices into building codes and support
of training in these areas for key staff
Prohibiting Inefficient landscape or irrigation practices
Integrated water resource management such as capture of surface water and
use of surficial aquifers
Management Auditing of Conservation Program on a Yearly Basis
General Water Conservation Procedures
General water conservation measures consist of providing information to customers
through various media outlets in through partnerships with public and private concerns. T
These procedures can be used at any phase in the conservation process and generally are
not accompanied by any type of measure to ensure effectiveness. They are generally used
to increase conservation awareness within the entire community. These procedures
consist of:

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


Best Management Conservation Practices for Customers
Public Education
Programs to Increase Community Conservation Awareness
Community Conservation Partnerships
Permanent Water Use Restrictions
11
Basic Water Conservation Measures
Universal Metering for All Customers
Source and service metering are key to a successful water use efficiency program. Source
and service meters provide the data necessary for determining leakage, assist in managing
an important resource, and enhance planning activities. The installation of meters,
coupled with other conservation measures, allow water systems to increase efficiency
and/or expand connections without developing new sources or storage facilities.
• Meters are the foundation for a rate structure that can provide for funding of
capital improvements, including the meters themselves.
• Metering helps systems identify high-use customers and take steps to lessen
their impact on the system.
• The identification of unaccounted-for water losses is made easier with meters,
and allows systems to recover capacity through leak identification and repair.
Checklist for Universal Metering:

Source-water metering. All wells and water sources used by the utility are
metered.

Service-connection metering. All customer service-connections to the water
supply system are metered. These include all utility facilities.

Public-use and construction-use water metering. All water provided free of
charge for public use such as for flushing, fire protection, street cleaning,
construction, etc. is metered and read at regular intervals.

Public-use and construction water use locations are identified. Water provided
for these purposes if not metered should be identified and the water use
estimated.

Water meters are read at fixed intervals. This should be monthly for large
commercial accounts and at least quarterly for residential accounts

Water meter consumption for larger commercial customers is trended monthly.

Water meter credits that are issued are approved by the operational supervisor
responsible for meter reads.
12
Implementing a Meter Evaluation and Meter Replacement Program
Water meters can be damaged and deteriorate with age, thus producing inaccurate
readings. Inaccurate readings will give misleading information regarding water usage,
make leak detection difficult, and result in lost revenue for the system. All meters,
especially older meters, should be tested for accuracy on a regular basis. Typically, water
meter repair and replacement is the single most cost-effective action a utility can take to
reduce the volume of unaccounted-for water.
AWWA recommends that meters in service be tested or replaced, on average, as
follows:
Meter sizes 5/8 in. to 1 in = Every 10 years
Meter sizes 1 in. to 4 in. = Every 5 years
Meter sizes 4 in. and larger = Every year
Meters larger than two inches are usually tested in place using a calibrated field test
meter. To be able to field-test a meter, there must be a tap and an isolation valve
immediately downstream from the meter. This temporary connection can be made with a
fire hose. These can also be tested with Ultrasonic strap on meters.
Even new meters should be tested. Master meters in water plants are, in some cases,
difficult or impossible to test using a field test meter. In these situations, a drawdown test
can be conducted, which involves comparing a known volume of water pumped out of a
tank (clearwell) to the volume recorded on the meter being tested.
Although residential meters may be the final priority in the testing and maintenance
program, in small systems, they are often times the largest single contributor of lost
water. The residential meters can be broken down to the ones that have high usage and
the ones that don’t. A meter test program will be most effective to concentrate fires?? on
the residential meters that have highest water usage.
The majority of residential meters are the positive displacement types, which almost
always slow down when they are worn or encrusted by minerals or debris. Thus water
systems with high hardness or high calcium content will have the larger problems with
registration. The testing program for residential meters should either consist of periodic
testing on a test bench or a complete change-out program based on a statistical analysis of
meters with similar ages that show registration below a targeted limit of generally 95%.
Residential meters should be checked at least every seven to 10 years. Testing and
maintenance of the meters depends on the quality and quantity of the water. Water that
has high levels of minerals will affect the operation of a meter over time. If adverse
conditions, such as high minerals or large flows are encountered, meters will require
more frequent attention. If your system does not have a certified meter test bench, a
13
neighboring utility system may allow you to use its equipment, the testing can be
performing by the meter vendor, or by a private company specializing in meter testing.
FRWA also has small meter testers from companies like Mars, etc that can be used,
borrowed, or purchased.
Residential
Meter Test
Bench used by
Lakeland
Utilities
Field-testing of residential meters can be performed in-place to determine a general range
of accuracy. When properly used the field unit can measure within 0.5% of accuracy.
These types of test units are most valuable for spot-checking meter accuracy where a
problem is suspected. They are also valuable in performing statistical analysis to
determine the overall expected residential water meter efficiency in a water system.
These devices are generally limited to flow ranges between 0.5 and 20 gpm.
Field Meter Flow
Test kits are
available from a
variety of
manufactures
and provide a
means of spotchecking meter
accuracy.
Field Meter Test Kit
Invensys LTD
The water system also should determine that meters are appropriately sized. Meters that
are too large for a customer’s level of use will tend to under-register water use the table
below illustrates the type of meter, its proper application and the range of flows it will
accurately record.
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Table 5
Various Types of Water Meters for Water Measurement Applications
and Flow Registration Accuracies
Type
of Meter
Typical
Application
Sizes
Flow Type
Displacement
Meters
Residential and
Small
Commercial
Intermittent
Flow
Multi Jet Meters
Residential and
Commercial
Irrigation
Propeller
Raw (dirty)
Water
Measurement
Commercial
And Industrial
5/8”
¾”
1”
1.5”
2”
5/8”
¾”
1”
1.5”
2”
3” to
36”
1.5”
2”
3”
Varies
Turbine Meter
Compound
Wholesale
Customers
Flow
Range
GPM
Accuracy
All ranges
1 – 20
2 – 30
3 – 50
5 – 100
8 - 160
1 – 20
2 – 30
3 – 50
5 – 100
8 - 160
Varies
+ 1.5%
(Continuous
flow at max. rate
is 50% of rated
value)
+ 1.5%
(Continuous
flow at max. rate
is 50% of rated
value)
+ 2.0%
100:1
Flow Range
4 - 120
4 -160
5 - 350
1000:1
Flow Range
Varies
+ 1.5%
(Intermittent
flows at 25%
above max.)
+ 1.5%
Intermittent
Flow
10:1
Flow Range
Meter accuracy is determined by flowing water through a calibrated meter or measuring
the water flowing through the meter in a predetermined time and comparing the volume
measured by the suspect meter. Source water meters should be calibrated yearly.
A well meter is tested using and
ultrasonic clamp-on meter.
Mastermeters can also be tested
this way
FRWA assists utilities in
calibrating well and master
meters. Meters that measure less
than 95% accuracy must be
repaired or replaced per state
requirements.
Meter Calibration using
Ultrasonic Flow Meter
15
Florida Rural Water Association can assist utilities in checking the accuracy of flow
meters.
Checklist for Water Sytstem Meter Sizing and Meter Testing Program:

Water Meter Testing Program. The utility staff performs water meter testing.

Water Meter Testing Program. Water meter testing is performed by contractor
assistance or by outside agencies.

Residential Water Meter Testing Program. The water system tests all residential
meters at least every 7 to 10 years.

Small Commercial and Industrial Water Meter Testing Program. The water
system tests all water meters above 1 to 4 ” in size at least every 5 to 7 years.

Large Commercial and Industrial Water Meter Testing Program. The water
system tests all water meters above 4” in size at least one time per year.

Routine Water Meter Change Outs. Water meters are changed out based on
no-read and noticeable drops in average recorded historical monthly demand.

Exceptional Water Meter Change Program Out by Age: Water meters are
changed out routinely after 7 to 10 years of use

Acceptable Water Meter Change Out Program by Age: Water meters are changed
out routinely after 10 to 15 years of use

Below Average Water Meter Change Out Program by Age: Water meters are
changed out after about 15 to 20 years of service

Water Meter Standards: The utility requires that all meters used in its water
system meet written standards

Water Meter Installation Guidelines: The utility ensures that meters are installed
horizontally and are level

Water Meter Types: The utility requires that special use application meters such
as for irrigation or high use be specified by a engineer or architect

Water Meter Sizing Program: Meter sizing is performed by utility staff or
reviewed by an engineering consultant for all new non-residential water service
applications.

Water Meter Sizing Follow-up: Actual water consumption is compared to
calculated water consumption to ensure acceptable correlation.
16
Performing a Water System Audit
A water system audit can provide information needed to make a more accurate analysis
of all types of water loss that might occur in a water system. It consists of systematically
identifying the three types of water use: authorized unmetered water use, unauthorized
unmetered water use and metered water use. Metered water use does not represent
accurate water use unless programs are in place to ensure metered accuracy. Thus the
water audit identifies deficiency that must be corrected to provide accurate water
registration by the meters in use.
The summation of all forms of water consumption, including water consumption that is
not registered because of inaccurate meter registration are then compared with the actual
corrected metered amount of water to determine an efficiency for the water system.
Water efficiency is generally calculated for a one-year period using data collected by the
utility each month. The one-year period is used in a water audit to dampen the effect of
the lag period between actual meter readings and water meter posting that may occur over
different periods of time.
Generally an efficiency of 10% unaccounted-for-water is considered acceptable by
AWWA. However, this statistic represents average contributions of older pipelines that
have a much higher leakage factor than more current pipelines that are constructed using
modern standards. For this reason the utility should periodically perform a system audit
to identify water loss that can be recovered reducing the utility’s overall operational
costs.
Checklist for Performing a Water System Audit
Defining Authorized Unmetered Water Use; The utility routinely identifies:

Water Use for Firefighting and Firefighting Training

Water Main Directional Flushing

Storm Drain Flushing and Street Cleaning

Landscaping Irrigation in Parks, Golf Courses, Cemeteries, Playgrounds, Median
Strips, etc.

Decorative Water Facilities

Swimming Pools

Construction Sites

Water Quality, i.e. pressure and flow tests, flush valves or periodic flushing
17

Process Water at Treatment or other Municipal facilities

Potential Unmetered water loss are surveyed, i.e. wet areas in dry periods are
investigated, water running into storm facilities, customer complaints of wet
areas, etc.

The Utility responds within 24 hours and repairs water leaks reported by
customers.
Defining Unauthorized Unmetered Use; The utility has procedures in-place that
routinely identifies

Accounting Errors in Billing Procedures

Illegal Connections

Malfunctioning Controls Valves, i.e. faulty altitude valve, flush valve, pressure
relief valves and check valves at well sites

Water storage leakage from tanks

Water Storage overflows

Active Leak Identification Program for meter readers

Meter Tampering and water theft program
Defining Authorized Metered Efficiency; The utility has procedures in-place
that routinely identifies water meter efficiency and water consumption for the
various classes of customers.

The utility has identified all users of water by street address and has identified
accounts with a specific meter number for each customer

The water system has identified high water demand patterns from billing records
and compared these with the type of meter used by the customer

The utility has listed by meter size and meter number all active accounts for the
various categories and has compiled total water use for a one year period
18
Initiating a Leak Detection Program
Leak detection is the logical and progressive follow-up step after conducting a water
system audit, if water loss remains higher than 10-12% after water audit and proper water
use accounting. The water system audit provides much of the information needed to make
a more accurate analysis of all types of water loss that might occur in a water system. It
helps focus the leak detection investigation to areas that have the highest likelihood of
providing results.
Leak detection considers water losses slightly differently than in a water audit since it
recognizes that some water loss will always occur even with the best water conservation
programs. When conducting a leak detection program, AWWA suggests using three
categories of water loss as shown below:
1) Real Losses
These are losses due to leakage and excess system pressure. Real losses can be
reduced by more efficient leakage management, improved response time to repair
leaks, improved pressure management and level control, and improved system
maintenance, replacement, and rehabilitation. The variable cost of real losses may
be estimated using the marginal production costs, such as energy and chemicals
needed to treat and deliver the water. Although variable costs represent actual outof–pocket expenses to the utility, they significantly underestimate the capital cost
necessary to treat and distribute the water to the customer.
2) Apparent Losses
These are losses due to meter accuracy error, data transfer errors between meter
and archives, data analysis errors between archived data and data used for
billing/water balance, unauthorized consumption including theft and improper
billing credits issued by the utility. Apparent losses are minimized by
identification during the water audit and corrective action by the utility in the leak
detection phase of the program. The cost of apparent losses may be estimated
using the retail commodity rates.
3) Unavoidable Annual Real Losses
These losses represent the theoretically low level of annual real losses in millions
of gallons daily (“MGD”) that could exist in a system if a leak detection program
management were successfully implemented. These losses are calculated based on
age, type of pipe and pressure maintained in the system and field data obtained
from system inspection. Water loss is based on number of miles of water mains,
number of service connections, average water pressure maintained in various
areas, and length of service connections. Unavoidable annual real losses are
19
allocated to service lines and water mains using methods suggested by the
AWWA M36 Manual.
The table below shows a comparison of common types of pipe materials and
acceptable water leakage allowances:
Pipe Material
Length Test Pressure
(psi)
Asbestos Cement 13
150
Ductile Iron
18
150
PVC
20
150
Allowable Leakage
GPD / mile-in
30.00
23.30
1.88 (8” dia.)
Water losses can be targeted after compilation of the three categories of loss described
above. Based on ideal conditions for the particular water system, a Water System
Leakage Index is calculated. The index is the ratio of current leakage relative to the best
level obtainable with current best management practices for leakage implemented. A ratio
of 1.0 would indicate that the utility has reduced losses to the theoretically lowest level
possible.
Causes of Pipeline Leaks in Water Distribution Systems
Identifying the area where pipeline leaks may be occurring is crucial in detecting the
leaks. Leaks are caused by a variety of conditions that include the following:












Drought conditions - as the ground dries out, the pipes can move and sometimes
break
Corrosion of the water main, due to some surrounding "aggressive" soils (mainly
clays or loams) or stray cathodic protection systems
Movement of aboveground pipelines - which make the joints susceptible to leaks
Improper bedding in trenches that contain rocks of voids that cause stress or
shifting.
Rapid changes in water pressure (water-hammer) caused by rapid closing of fire
hydrants or valves can cause a pipe's weak point to start a horizontal crack
Ground movement around the main caused by dry/wet/cold weather conditions
can cause a "broken back" crack on the main
Constant impact of road traffic or improper loading above the pipe can cause a
pipe shift or to crack
A poorly fitted main tap can cause metal corrosion and subsequent leaks
Deterioration of aged fittings on a main (such as a hydrant or valve) can cause
leaks
Corrosion or damage to the house service line prior to the water meter
Faulty or old meter or meter tap can cause leaks at the meter
Older more brittle cast iron pipe is more subject to the effects of ground
movements and will break more often than newer stress tolerant materials
20
Detecting actual leaks is the first step in eliminating pipeline leakage and follow up leak
repair is always the more costly step in the process. In some cases where facilities are
located in heavily congested and populated areas, repair costs can be exorbitant. On
average, the savings in water no longer lost to leakage outweigh the cost of leak detection
and repair. In most systems, assuming detection is followed by repair, it is economical to
completely survey the system for leaks every one to three years.
Effective leak detection and repair programs require the maintenance of accurate and
sufficiently detailed records that report leaks consistently over time. Records concerning
water production and sales, and leak costs and benefits generally become increasingly
important over time. Three sets of records should be kept: (1) monthly reports on
unaccounted-for water comparing cumulative sales and production (for the last 12
months, to adjust discrepancies caused by the billing cycle); (2) leak-repair report forms;
and (3) updated maps of the distribution system showing the location, type, and class of
each leak.
Leaks are not always associated with leaks from the causes listed above. For example,
Fire hydrants, due to their construction, are the source of common leaks. Small outlets
called weep holes located on the base of the hydrant allow the hydrant barrel to drain
after use in climatic regions where freezing temperatures are common. Hydrants are often
operated by inexperienced personnel who either do not shut the hydrant off completely,
or damage the valve seat by using excessive force when closing it down. In either case,
water continually flows into the hydrant body and escapes through the weep hole. Most
often, these relatively small hydrant leaks are not visible.
In a leak detection survey performed by the Southwest Florida Water Management
District completed in 2005, with 72 utilities participating, 735 water leaks were identified
with an estimated water loss of over 2 MGD. The leaks were quantified as follows:
Table 6
Results of Leak Survey on 72 Utilities
Leaks Detected by Access Point SWFWMD
Survey Conducted in 2005
Access Point
Water Valve Fire Hyd Service
Conn.
No Inspected
32,779
20,776
4,917
Leaks Identified 293
233
76
% Per Inspection 1%
1%
1.5%
Pipelines Leaks
Joints/Other
1,606
133
8.3%
21
The data suggests that there are a significant number of unaccounted for leaks and that
many of the leaks are long-term and associated with water valves and fire hydrants. In
areas where leaks are targeted, leaks are found at a fairly high frequency.
Leak Detection Equipment
allows the operator to detect
sound waves that emanate
from the source of the leak.
Modern equipment isolates
typical leak frequencies and
filters background sounds that
can allow an operator to more
accurately locate the leak than
the older style equipment.
Water Leak Detector
Leak detection efforts are most effective when they are targeted on the portion of the
distribution system with the greatest expected problems. These area generally include:






areas with a history of excessive leak and break rates;
areas where leaks and breaks can result in the heaviest property damage;
areas where system pressure is high;
areas exposed to stray electric current and traffic vibration;
areas near stream crossings; and
areas where loads on pipe exceed design loads.
Surface leaks are more easily to identify since wet areas will be visible especially in dry
period. Larger leaks may be identified by very wet areas or sounds of running water.
Subsurface leaks are more difficult to identify. The American Water Works Association
(AWWA) estimates that, nationwide, only 30% of all underground leaks ever come to the
surface. This statistic is compounded in Florida because of its unique subsurface
conditions. These conditions produce paths of least resistance that may not allow the
water to surface. Lateral movement through lime rock fissures can direct water away
from the surface, as can leaks in sandy areas that flow far away from the source. Leaks
may also occur where the path of least resistance leads into a storm drain, sewer, or a
nearby body of water. For this reason it is advisable to use personnel trained and
experienced in the use of sounding equipment to assist the utility in identifying leaks.
An effective leak detection program allows the utility to prepare more effective
and accurate pipeline rehabilitation budgets using the information collected to set
priorities and allocating funds.
22
Estimating Water Loss Caused by Leaks in Pipelines and Service Laterals
Leads
Water loss can be reasonably estimated by identifying the various types of leaks that
occur in a water system. A table that may be used for this purpose is provided below:
Table 7
Estimating Water Loss from Small Pin-Hole Type Leaks
Water Loss in Gallons per Minute (gpm)
Diameter of
Hole (in)
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.5
2.0
20
Pressure (psi)
40
60
80
100
1.1
4.3
9.6
17.1
26.7
38.5
52.3
68.4
86.5
106.8
240.3
427.2
1.5
6.0
13.6
24.2
37.8
54.4
74.0
96.7
122.3
151.0
339.8
604.1
2.1
8.5
19.2
34.1
53.4
76.9
104.7
136.7
173.0
213.6
480.6
854.4
2.4
9.5
21.5
38.2
59.7
86.0
117.0
152.8
193.4
238.8
537.3
955.2
1.9
7.4
16.6
29.6
46.2
66.6
90.6
118.4
149.8
184.0
416.2
739.7
Table 8
Estimating Water Loss from Pipeline Cracks
Water Loss in Gallons per Minute (gpm)
Area (in)
Length Width 20
Pressure (psi)
40
60
80
100
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
4.5
9.0
18.0
36.0
7.1
14.2
28.5
57.0
1/32
1/16
1/8
1/4
3.2
6.4
12.7
25.5
5.5
11.0
22.1
44.1
6.4
12.7
25.5
51.0
Leaks may be reduced by reducing pressure in instances where system pressures exceed
80 psi. Reducing pressure in other situations must be considered carefully with hydraulic
23
analysis to ensure the minimum DEP pressure requirements are not violated, fire
protection is not compromised and electric motors are not caused to run excessively. In
selected cases, installation of pressure-reducing valves in street mains, as well as
individual buildings may be considered.
Table 9
Estimating Water Loss from Drips and Very Small Flows
Water Loss in Gallons per Minute (gpm)
Counted Drips
Drips per Loss
Second
(gpm)
1
0.006
2
0.012
3
0.018
4
0.024
5
0.030
6
0.036
7
0.042
8
0.048
8 oz. Cup
Cups per
minute
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.50
2.00
3.00
4.00
Loss
(gpm)
0.016
0.031
0.047
0.062
0.094
0.125
0.188
0.250
The effective use of Leak detection equipment in a leak detection program follows a
series of progressive steps as listed below:
Leak Detection Procedures
Step 1: The first step in a leak detection program is a preliminary survey to
determine obvious leaks and water losses through malfunctioning pumps, valves,
meters and other appurtenances.
Step 2: The next step is to measure water flow by isolating each distribution
zone, then listening to water movement, testing pressures, and watching tank
levels and meters to determine leakage.
Step 3: The third step is to pinpoint leaks with listening devices. These can range
from using a screwdriver to listen for vibrations, to using advanced leak
correlators
Step 4: The fourth step is to record the size (using the FRWA tables provided) and
documenting the location of leaks.
Step 5: The final step is to repair the found leaks. Depending upon the extent of
the leaks, repairs or replacement may need to be scheduled into a capital
24
improvement program. Unless the leaks that are discovered are repaired as part of
a leak reduction strategy, the program will be ineffective.
Leak detection can be conducted either by a utility crew or by a contracted firm.
Checklist for a Comprehensive Water Sytstem Leak Detection Program:

The water systems routinely inspects hydrants and valves in a distribution system
as part of a leak detection program

The water system updates water distribution system maps within one year after
as-built drawings are obtained

The water system has inspected water pipelines for the purpose of cleaning,
pigging, lining, or has other on-going water system maintenance efforts in-place
to improve the distribution system reliability and to prevent leaks and ruptures
from occurring

The utility estimates total leakage from each leak based on the leakage flow rate
and length of leakage from time reported to repair the leak

Customers are encouraged to report leaks

The water system tracks the location of leaks and has a method to calculate when
it is cost-effective to replace mains and service lines

Meter readers are trained to look for and report leaks

Water Consumption records are adjusted when billed consumption is modified
Water Theft Control and Meter Tampering Program
Water theft and meter tampering occurs in almost every water system and can be a
significant loss of revenue to the utility if there is no program in place to prevent it. Water
theft can be identified using billing records, with field inspection or a combination of
both. Non-paying customers hurt the utility’s bottom line and other customers in the long
run. Some utility workers suspect tampering is going on but will likely not pursue
resolution unless supported by an on-going anti-theft program. Others may suspect
tampering, but know the burden of proof is too difficult to overcome to accuse someone.
The older type meters allowed the register to be removed and thus water could pass
through it without being recorded. Newer type meters are sealed and do not allow this to
occur.
25
Most water theft occurs when the utility has turned the water off for non-payment and the
resident turns it back on. Water can be stolen by replacing the meter with a fabricated
spacer pipe or can be directly taken from a fire hydrant.
Florida Rural Water
Association works with
Utilities in Identifying
Water Theft and in
setting up Effective
programs for
for training utility
employees in detection.
Common Straight Pipe Connection
used to obtain free water.
From the billing side the best way to determine water theft is by maintaining customer
usage trends. When water use drops dramatically in a hot dry period it is likely that meter
tampering or meter malfunction is a problem. The two most likely tampering indicators
are:


Meter readings that are lower than the history for previous readings
Low consumption based on knowledge of average water consumption
Meters can be attached to the shut off valve using a safety wire. This is typically done
when the tampering is suspected. Utilities are encouraged to train meter readers in
identifying the unusual conditions where water theft is likely. For example, very green
lawns in dry periods are an indication of irrigation. Irrigation theft typically occurs in
relatively high socioeconomic areas.
Theft of water for construction purposes including irrigation of newly installed sod is
perhaps the most common type of water theft. This type of theft occurs when the utility
does not have provisions for the permitted use of temporary construction water.
Other theft and tampering indicators are when the customer refuses to allow meter
readers to access a property to obtain an actual reading. Meter readers should always be
on the lookout for unusual conditions that lead to suspected tampering and these
observations should be recorded for future reference.
There are many instances of residences that receive water service but are not recorded as
a customer in the billing records. In new subdivisions mistakes can occur and so can
illegal taps. It is a good policy to reconcile addresses with billing records.
26
Checklist for a Water Theft Control and Meter Tampering Program:

The utility has an on-going water theft control and meter tampering program

The utility trains meter readers in identifying suspected water theft

The utility instructs meter readers to record comments on observation of
unusual conditions that may indicate water theft

The utility regularly inspects service connections (meter installations) for
evidence of theft

The utility maintains a permit system for the use of construction water

The utility has in-place a penalty mechanism that includes discontinuation of
service for water theft

The utility flags water usage using billing records that is significantly below
average especially in dry periods
27
Intermediate Water Conservation Measures
Water Conservation Training and Planning for Administrators and City Officials
Utility Management and Board Training are available from Florida Rural Water
Association professionals. Management sessions may be formal classroom type training
or training for individuals. Florida Rural Water Association is available to help utilities
operate more efficiently using formal conservation programs.
Conservation planning begins by the setting of water conservation goals. Each water
system begins its conservation plan by stating its goals in terms of the desired and
expected benefits to be achieved for the water system and for its customers. Once the
goals are set, the Conservation Planning Process proceeds systematically as a series of
steps are completed. The steps are tasks that are completed using the work accomplished
in the completing Basic Conservation Measures.
Conservation Planning goals typically include eliminating, downsizing, or postponing the
need for capital projects; extending the life of existing facilities; avoiding new source
water development costs; improving drought or emergency preparedness; educating
customers about the value of water; or protecting and preserving environmental
resources.
The Conservation Planning Process
Step 1. Specify Conservation Planning Goals
• List conservation planning goals and their relationship to supply-side
planning
• Describe community involvement in the goals-development process
Step 2: Develop a Water System Profile
• Inventory existing facilities, production characteristics, and water use
• Review conditions that might affect the water system and conservation
planning
Step 3. Prepare a Demand Forecast
• Anticipate water demand for future time period’s
• Adjust demand based on known and measurable factors
• Discuss uncertainties and “what if” scenarios (sensitivity analysis)
Step 4. Describe Planned Facilities
28
• Plan improvements for the water system over a reasonable time period
• Estimate the total, annualized, and unit cost (per gallon) of planned supplyside improvements and additions
• Anticipate total installed water capacity over the planning period based on
potential improvements and additions
Step 5. Identify Water Conservation Measures
• Review conservation measures that have been implemented or that are
planned for implementation
• Discuss legal or other barriers to implementing recommended measures
• Identify measures for further analysis
Step 6. Analyze Benefits and Costs
• Estimate total implementation costs and anticipated water savings
• Assess cost effectiveness for recommended conservation measures
• Compare implementation costs to avoided supply-side costs
7. Select Conservation Measures
• Select criteria for choosing conservation measures
• Identify selected measures
• Explain why recommended measures will not be implemented
• Provide strategy and timetable for implementing conservation measures
8. Integrate Resources and Modify Forecasts
• Modify water demand and supply capacity forecasts to reflect anticipated
effects of conservation
• Discuss the effects of conservation on planned water purchases,
improvements, and additions
• Discuss the effects of planned conservation measures on water utility
revenues
9. Present Implementation and Evaluation Strategy
• Explain approaches for implementing and evaluating the conservation plan
• Ascertain support of the conservation plan by the system’s governing body
Florida Rural Water Association can assist small utilities in preparing a water
conservation plan.
29
Performing a Comparative Costing and Pricing Analysis
Florida Rural Water Association assists small systems in performing cost of service
analysis for their water system. The study evaluates the true and proposed costs
associated with providing drinking water to the customers. Cost based rates are
recommended by a systematic analysis of the current and future costs for providing water
service. The analysis takes into consideration the impact of using remaining treatment
capacity, the timing of future expansions, maintaining regulatory compliance, funding
requirements and the costs of, engineering design, and permitting. A typical cost of
service study methodology used by Florida Rural Water Association is illustrated below:
Fundamentals of a Cost of Service Study





Determine current expenses for residential, commercial and industrial classes
of customers.
Estimate short and long-term facility needs based on identified development,
historical trends and economic indicators.
Establish Construction Schedules, Capital Needs (cash flows), cash, interest
payments and interest ratios to be maintained required by Bond Resolutions.
Estimate operating revenue and non-operating expenses
Rates are allocated to individual classes of customers that fairly allocates
charges to those using the service
Florida Rural
Water Association
assists small
utilities in
collecting and
allocating water
revenues to ensure
a strong financial
position for
meeting future
obligations.
Typical Breakdown of Water Rate Revenue
30
Water utilities must cover a variety of costs that are listed below. Many utilities
underestimate the water capacity cost required to meet peak demands on the water
system by irrigation. These high demands can be reduced by good conservation
planning.
Operating Costs for a Small Water System






Supply and Transmission Costs – average cost of supply and transmission to
customer, i.e. electricity, chemicals & labor
Commodity Cost - Costs that vary proportionately with the amount of water
provided under average consumption; typically based on size of meter
(proportioned by meter size)
Capacity Cost - Costs that are incurred to meet the maximum demand (Peak
demands have much higher costs)
Customer Related Cost - The costs that are associated with serving customers
independent of the amount of water they use
Public Fire Protection. The cost of hydrants and the over-sizing of water
mains and reservoirs to provide fire flow.
Taxes, Surcharges and GF Transfers. Costs include state & city utility taxes,
customer billing audits utility maintenance.
Implementing an Irrigation Pricing Supplement to Current Rates
The cost and price of water constitute conservation strategies because they involve
understanding the true value of water and conveying information about that value,
through prices, to water customers. Evaluating and modifying current user charges is
considered a necessary part of a water conservation strategy.
Conservation pricing includes consideration of a number of variables. These are:
Definition of Variables Used in Water Conservation Pricing

Cost-of-service accounting. Water systems must use cost-of-service
accounting, consistent with generally accepted practices. Understanding and
tracking system costs provides a capacity-development strategy for small
utilities.

User charges. Once costs are established, systems can develop more accurate
user charges that are developed as a water rate structure.

Metered rates. Metered rates must be used so that the customer’s water bill
corresponds to their water usage. For most systems changes in water rates
must be approved by regulators and oversight bodies. It is important for water
31
systems to communicate with regulators about costs and the need for costbased pricing.

Cost analysis. Systems should conduct a cost of service analysis, such as
described above, to understand what types of usage drive system costs. For
optimizing water conservation systems should analyze patterns of usage by
season and include analysis by the category of user receiving the service.

Nonpromotional rates. Systems also should consider whether their current rate
structures promote water usage. Nonpromotional conservation rates should be
implemented whenever possible in order to enhance the conservation signal of
the rate. Systems seeking to encourage conservation through their rates should
consider various issues: the allocation between fixed and variable charges,
usage blocks and breakpoints, minimum bills and whether water is provided in
the minimum bill, seasonal pricing options, and pricing by customer category.

Inverted block rates: Inverted block rates are the opposite of a declining block
rate structure. Under this alternative, rates increase for progressively larger
volumes of water use. As a result, larger volume customers pay a
progressively higher average rate for increased water use. The concept of an
increasing price per unit of use frequently arises from the desire for
conservation in total water use. Increased concern for conservation of
resources has led to acceptance of inverted rates in many areas of the country,
particularly those facing immediate and recognizable water supply problems.
It is possible to impose an inverted block rate structure that is applicable to all
customers; however, this practice has many drawbacks from an equitability
standpoint due to the diverse water usage characteristics of various customer
categories. Most utilities adopt a separate inverted block rate structure
primarily for residential customers. Under an inverted structure, the residential
class may be charged a higher unit rate for increased water use in excess of an
established amount per billing period. Typically, the higher priced blocks are
established at amounts that would typically include non-sanitary uses such as
irrigation, car washing, and filling swimming pools. Under this alternative,
these uses are charge at a higher rate to discourage their use.

Seasonal rates. Seasonal rates establish a higher rate for water use during the
utility's peak season, reflecting the higher cost of providing water during those
periods. Seasonal rate structures indicate to the consumer the importance of
efficient use of resources.
In most water systems, the peak demand for water service occurs in the
summertime, when lawn irrigation and other outdoor uses are more prevalent.
This fact has given rise to consideration of seasonal rates, whereby higher
rates are charged for water used in the summer or peak season than for the
32
non-peaking portion of the year. Seasonal rates have received greater attention
in more recent years due in part to localized water shortages. In addition, the
recognition of peaking requirements as a significant element of cost has
opened the way to seasonal rates.
There are several types of seasonal water rates. The simplest type is merely to
charge a higher unit price for water used in the summer than for water used
the rest of the year.

Excess-Use charges. Excess-use charges are characterized by having one
schedule of charges for winter season level of use, with an additional charge
for use in excess of the base amount during a peak water-using period.
Excess-use is usually determined from the usage patterns of individual
customers. The added charge is developed from an analysis of costs during
peak and off-peak seasonal periods. For example, if a customer's average
monthly usage during the winter period is 10,000 gallons (gal) and its usage
during a given month during the summer period is 25,000 gal, then the excess
above-average winter period monthly use of 15,000 gal would be charged at a
higher rate than the rate for the first 10,000 gal, which would be at the lower
winter rate.
One consideration in developing excess-use charges is the determination of a suitable
definition for excess use. In the broadest sense, excess use is that volume of use over a
given period of time that exceeds some base figure. As a practical matter, excess use
must be related to the period of time in which the volume of use can be measured in order
to establish a sound basis for establishing excess usage. The definition of excess use
selected will affect the magnitude of both the rate of charge for excess use and the base
rate of charge (that is, the charge for off-peak usage). Before adopting any one definition
of excess use, the potential quantitative and subjective impacts should be carefully
considered. Particular emphasis should be placed on practicality of application, customer
understanding, and potential administrative constraints and added costs related to
metering, billing, and data processing.
One beneficial aspect of an excess-use charge, even though it is a more sophisticated
form of charge, is that it does tend to result in a more equitable bearing of costs by
individual customers of the system. The costs incurred in meeting peaking requirements
can be derived from among those customers using the extra capacity, while customers
exerting relatively uniform requirements on the system bear only the costs related to such
service.
When any conservation signals or advanced pricing methods are added to encourage
conservation, the utility must consider the effect of the new rate structure on utility
revenues. Conservation-oriented pricing requires planners to make certain assumptions
about the elasticity (based on the available empirical evidence) of water demand, or the
responsiveness of water usage to a change in price. Elasticity is measured by the ratio of
33
a percentage change in quantity demanded to a percentage change in price. Changes in
the rate structure should allow the system to achieve demand reduction goals recovering
water system costs. In allocating costs, the impact of the rate structure on user demand
and revenues for specific customer categories must be considered to minimize revenue
shortfalls.
The Disadvantages of Advanced Conservation Rates
Advanced conservation rate structures also have some significant disadvantages that must
be considered in the development process. These are identified below:
Disadvantages of Advanced Conservation Rates
• Unstable Revenues – A high level of community awareness can lead to extensive
conservation. This reduced use can cause revenue shortfalls. External factors, such as
wet years or mandatory reductions can also cause severe revenue problems. Higher
levels of operating reserves are appropriate.
• Adverse Public Response – Since seasonal rates target high use periods, they result
in increased customer bills during the summer months when bills are already higher.
While this is an intended outcome, it results in an increase in complaints and in
customer ill will.
• Impact on Large Families – Larger households naturally use more water.
Conservation rates must be carefully structured to avoid penalizing such customers.
• Timing – In many systems, residences are billed bimonthly. Thus, the first price
signal may arrive after the heavy irrigation season is over, resulting in a greater effect
only in the second year of a conservation rate. This occurs because the signal was too
late to affect usage in the first year. The phased public relations (PR) program should
be implemented before this peak period occurs.
Rate issues can be very complicated to a small utility. Florida Rural Water Association
can assist the utility in designing a custom conservation rate that easy to understand and
effective.
34
Advanced Conservation Measures
Developing Advanced Conservation Measures
Efficient water use can have major environmental, public health, and economic benefits by
helping to improve water quality, maintain aquatic ecosystems, and protect drinking water
resources. By using water more efficiently and by purchasing more water efficient products, we
can also help mitigate the effects of drought. This list of measures is not meant to be
comprehensive, but rather a starting point.
Advanced conservation measures are most effective when they are part of an overall community
supported strategy that encourages all users to conserve water. These strategies are most
effective when dedicated staff is available to develop effective programs. Use of a dedicated
water conservation coordinator can be highly effective. The duties of the water conservation
coordinator might include:
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Develop a water efficiency plan for the utility
Educating key staff in water conservation measures
Water Conservation Training for all Water Employees
Educate residents and school children in water efficiency efforts
Instituting a Water Conservation Education Program for Customers
Administer water audits on customer water uses
Educating Customers in retrofits such as toilets and shower heads
Educating Customers in landscape efficiency, drip irrigation and xeriscaping
Partner with irrigation contractors to achieve improved irrigation use
Statistically track water conservation effectiveness and make adjustment to programs
Like other conservation initiative, implementing advanced conservation strategies should
proceed systematically completing a series of steps as listed below:
Steps in Implementing Community Supported Water Conservation Program
Step 1: Administration and Planning
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Designate a water efficiency coordinator.
Develop a water efficiency plan.
Educate and involve employees, residents and school children in water efficiency efforts.
Step 2: Documenting Operating Improvements
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Implement a water-loss management program (e.g. repair leaks) that meets the water
industry goal for unaccounted-for-water of below 10 percent and/or results in residential
water use of below 120 gallons per capita per day.
Implementation of universal metering for water uses
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Use of reclaimed wastewater distribution system for non-potable uses.
Ensuring anti-theft and tampering programs are in-place including fire hydrant metering
Step 3: Provide example and demonstrate commitment in the Use of Water Saving
Appliances in Municipal Applications
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Replace toilets with high-efficiency models and retrofit existing water wasting plumbing
devices with water-saving units
Replace faucet aerators and low flow shower heads in municipal buildings
As municipal appliances or equipment wear out, replace them with water-saving models.
Eliminate “once-through” cooling of equipment with municipal water by recycling water
flow to cooling tower or replacing with air-cooled equipment.
Minimize the water used in space cooling equipment in accordance with manufacturer’s
recommendations. Shut off cooling units when not needed.
Install water-saving pool filters in municipal applications.
Step 4: Encourage and Demand Side Water Conservation:
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Remove barriers that discourage water conservation in the rate structure and ensure the
utility rate structure encourages water efficiency
Make retrofit kits for residences and businesses available free or at cost. Kits may contain
low flow faucet aerators, high efficiency showerheads, leak detection tablets, and
replacement valves.
Promote water-efficient landscape practices for homeowners and businesses, especially
those with large, irrigated properties, i.e. use of native plants, landscape renovation to
reduce water use, and more efficient irrigation.
Offer incentive programs (rebates/tax credits) to homeowners and businesses to
encourage replacement of plumbing fixtures and appliances with water-efficient models.
Conduct water-use audits of homes, businesses and industries. Audits provide users with
invaluable information about how water is used and how usage might be reduced by specific
measures.
Suggestion for Performing a Residential or Commercial Water Audit
The performance of residential and commercial water audits are generally used in
combination with an advanced community supported conservation program where dedicated
and trained utility staff are available to perform the audit.
The audit should begin with a meter check to determine water registration accuracy. Today’s
meters make the job easy by use of the sweep dial that indicates leaks in customer pipelines
and plumbing fixtures.
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The “sweep
indicator” is
located to the left
of the meter dial
and will move
when any water
passes through the
meter.
Bob, the meter isn’t showing when you print this out
Checklist for a Water Theft Control and Meter Tampering Program:
Water Meter
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Perform meter calibration/flow test
Perform a customer side leak analysis
Kitchen
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Check faucet flow rate and install aerator if needed
Check for drips and leaks
Bathroom
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Check shower flow rate and install aerator if needed
Check for drips and leaks
Check sink flow rates and install aerators if needed
Check for drips and leaks
Check Toilet for leaks using dye
Clean and replace flapper if need
Make manual adjustment to float arm
Provide information on toilet rebates
Outside Irrigation
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Measure the flow rate of sprinkler
Check for leaks in pipes/hoses and the irrigation systems
Check the position of sprinkler heads
Check and adjust the irrigation timer for proper water application
Provide the customer with information on drip irrigation
Provide the customer with information on native plants and xeriscaping
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General Conservation Procedures for Utilities
Encouraging Customer Conservation Awareness
Water customers can make just a few small changes to their daily routine and save a
significant amount of water. This water savings helps the utility by deferring capacity
improvements.
Water-efficient plumbing fixtures and irrigation systems provide the same performance and
quality as wasteful products, but with the added benefit of water savings. The EPA Water
Sense label helps customers to identify high-efficiency products and programs that feature
certified irrigation professionals.
Along with using EPA designated Water Sense products, the following water-efficient
practices have been found effective for all utilities:
Best Management Conservation Practices for Water Consumers
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Fix Leaky Faucets: Leaky faucets that drip at the rate of one drip per second can
waste more than 3,000 gallons of water each year.
Solution: If unsure whether there is a leak, read the water meter before and after a
two-hour period when no water is being used. If the meter does not read exactly
the same, you probably have a leak. Many meters have a sweep dial to show small
water movement or leaks.
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Fix Leaky Toilets A leaky toilet can waste about 200 gallons of water every day.
Solution: To tell if a toilet has a leak, place a drop of food coloring in the tank; if
the color shows in the bowl without flushing, there is a leak.
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Take Shower vs. Bath: A full bath tub requires about 70 gallons of water, while
taking a five-minute shower uses 10 to 25 gallons.
Solution: If you take a bath, stopper the drain immediately and adjust the
temperature as you fill the tub.
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Turn off the Tap when Brushing: The average bathroom faucet flows at a rate
of two gallons per minute.
Solution: Turning off the tap while brushing your teeth in the morning and at
bedtime can save up to 8 gallons of water per day, which equals 240 gallons a
month!
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Use Drip Irrigation: The typical single-family suburban household uses at least
30 percent of their water outdoors for irrigation. Some experts estimate that more
than 50 percent of landscape water use goes to waste due to evaporation or runoff
caused by over watering!
Solution: Drip irrigation systems use between 20 to 50 percent less water than
conventional in-ground sprinkler systems. They are also much more efficient than
conventional sprinklers because no water is lost to wind, runoff, and evaporation.
If your in-ground system uses 100,000 gallons annually, you could potentially
save more than 200,000 gallons over its lifetime.
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Use Full Laundry Loads: The average washing machine about 41 gallons of
water per load.
Solution: High-efficiency washing machines use less than 28 gallons of water per
load. To achieve even greater savings, wash only full loads of laundry or use the
appropriate load size selection on the washing machine.
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Use Water Saving Toilet: If your toilet is from 1992 or earlier, you probably
have an inefficient model that uses between 3.5 to 7 gallons per flush.
Solution: New and improved high-efficiency models use less than 1.3 gallons per
flush—that's at least 60 percent less than their older, less efficient counterparts.
Retrofitting your house with high-efficiency toilets can save a family of four
roughly $1,000 over the next 10 years without compromising performance.
Community Conservation Education
Information and education are critical to the success of any conservation program.
Information and education measures can directly produce water savings by encouraging
customers to change wasteful water-use habits.
Public education alone may not produce the same amount of sustained water savings as
other, more direct approaches such as leak repairs and retrofits but educational measures
create awareness that support the effectiveness of other conservation measures. For
example, it is widely believed that information plays a role in how water consumers
respond to changes in price. More generally, customers that are informed and involved
are more likely to support the water system’s conservation planning goals.
Providing information to the customer in how they pay for water is an important water
conservation technique that result in reductions in water use by the customer. Customers
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should be able to read and understand their water bills. An understandable water bill
should identify volume of usage, rates and charges, and other relevant information.
Providing pamphlets and bill inserts is another method of communicating water
conservation information. Public information and education are important components of
every water conservation plan. Consumers are often willing to participate in sound water
management practices if provided with accurate information. An information and
education program should explain to water users all of the costs involved in supplying
drinking water and demonstrate how water conservation practices will provide water
users with long-term savings.
Partnering in the Community
Partnering with schools can be effective in promoting conservation since the information
provided to children is often transmitted to the parents. Contacts through schools can help
socialize young people about the value of water and conservation techniques. Utilities
can use a variety of methods to disseminate information and educate the public on water
conservation. Outreach methods include speakers’ bureaus, operating booths at public
events, printed and video materials, and coordination with civic organizations.
Targeted public workshops are another avenue for gaining support for conservation
efforts. Large commercial concerns and industries are often aware of the public
relations values gained in supporting water conservation and will participate. Trade
groups such as plumbers, plumbing fixture suppliers, builders and landscape and
irrigation service providers are other groups that will participate.
Water conservation advisory committee can involve the public in the conservation
process; potential committee members include elected officials, local business people,
interested citizens, agency representatives, and representatives of concerned local groups.
The committee can provide feedback to the utility concerning its conservation plan and
develop new material and ideas about public information and support for conservation in
the community. To be meaningful, the utility must be receptive to ideas offered by the
committee and thus up-front commitment and a true desire by the utility
Reducing excessive pressures in the distribution system can save a significant quantity
of water. Reducing water pressure can decrease leakage, amount of flow through open
faucets, and stresses on pipes and joints that may result in leaks. Lower water pressure
may also decrease system deterioration, reducing the need for repairs and extending the
life of existing facilities. Furthermore, lower pressures can help reduce wear on end-use
fixtures and appliances.
Implementing Permanent Water Use Regulations
Water use regulation limiting irrigation are often invoked by water management districts
to ensure water conservation during droughts or other water-supply emergencies. In some
cases, utilities may find it desirable to extend water-use regulations to promote
conservation during non-emergency situations.
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Another type of regulation is to impose standards on new developments with regard to
landscaping, drainage, and irrigation practices. Larger homes frequently use in-ground
irrigation systems that significantly add to a utility’s peak demand.
Restrictions on water use should be justified by the system’s circumstances and should
not unduly compromise the customer’s rights or quality of service.
References:
Information from a variety of sources was used in preparing this document. Most of the
information came from USEPA Water Conservation Programs and the Florida Water
Conservation Initiative. Other information was obtained from public information found
on the worldwide web.
This document is intended as a guideline in assisting small water utilities in developing
more efficient water conservation practices and can be obtained free of charge from the
Florida Rural Water Association Web Site at http//www.frwa.net.
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