Bio 211 Exam 2 Study Guide
Chapters 18, 19, 22
Chapter 18
1. What is the pericardium? What is the difference between the fibrous pericardium and the
serous pericardium?
2. What is the myocardium? What is the endocardium? What kind of cells make up each?
3. Which part of the heart is the base and which part is the apex?
4. Know the path of blood through the heart: be able to trace the flow of blood from somewhere
out in the systemic circuit through the heart and back to the starting place.
5. Which chambers are the receiving chambers of the heart? Which chamber receives
deoxygenated blood? Which chamber receives oxygenated blood?
6. Which chambers pump blood out of the heart? Which chamber pumps blood into the
pulmonary trunk? Which pumps blood into the aorta?
7. Which side of the heart pumps blood to the pulmonary circuit? Which side receives blood
from the pulmonary circuit?
8. Which side of the heart pumps blood to the systemic circuit? Which side receives blood
from the systemic circuit?
9. How does the myocardium receive oxygen and nutrients? Where does the coronary
circulation begin? Where does blood from the coronary circulation return to the heart? Is
the coronary circulation really necessary? What happens if it is blocked?
10. What is the valve between the left atrium and the left ventricle? What is the valve between
the right atrium and right ventricle? What do they do?
11. What is the valve between the right ventricle and pumonary artery? What is the valve
between the left ventricle and aorta? What do they do?
12. Which valves keep blood from flowing back into the venous circulation when the atria
contract?
13. When atria contract which valves are open? Which are closed?
14. When ventricles contract which valves are open? Which are closed? Which valves are open
and which valves are closed when the ventricles are relaxed?
15. What is the function of the chordae tendineae? What is the function of the papillary
muscles?
16. What causes the AV valves to open? What causes them to close? What causes the
semilunar valves to open? What causes them to close?
17. Describe the properties of cardiac myocytes. Do cardiac myocytes use the sliding filament
mechanism to contract? How does the absolute refractory period of cardiac myocytes
compare to skeletal muscle fibers? What is the purpose? What are intercalated disks?
What does the statement “the heart contracts as a unit or not at all” mean?
18. How does the heart meet its energy demands? What fuels can cardiac myocytes use to
power contraction?
19. What is the intrinsic conduction system of the heart? What are autorhythmic cells? What is
a pacemaker potential? How does it make autorhythmic cells spontaneously depolarize?
20. What is the pacemaker of the heart? If it “blows out” what can take over?
21. What is the route of conductance of electrical activity through the heart?
22. What contributes to extrinsic regulation of heart rate?
23. How does sympathetic innervation affect the heart? How does parasympathetic innervation
affect the heart? What is the dominant extrinsic influence on heart rate at rest?
24. If the pacemaker cells at the SA node depolarize at a rate of approximately 100 times per
minute how can a normal resting heart rate be approximately 72 – 75 beats per minute?
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Bio 211 Exam 2 Study Guide
25. What kind of information does an EKG provide?
26. What does the P wave represent? What does the QRS complex represent? Why is it so
complex? What does the T wave represent?
27. What are tachycardia, bradycardia, normal sinus rhythm, and heart block?
28. What causes heart sounds I and II? What causes heart murmurs? What is the difference
between regurgitation and stenosis?
29. What is the cardiac cycle? Define systole and diastole.
30. What portion of the electrocardiogram represents the quiescent phase of the cardiac cycle?
Be able to correlate the phase of the cardiac cycle with each part of the EKG (atrial
systole/diastole, ventricular systole/diastole, etc.).
31. Which valves are open and which are closed during ventricular systole and ventricular
diastole?
32. Which valves are open and which are closed during atrial systole and atrial diastole?
33. What is the period of isovolumetric contraction? Why is there a period of isovolumetric
contraction? What is the period of isovolumetric relaxation? What is that all about? Is
there a time in the cardiac cycle when all valves are open?
34. What pressure does left ventricular pressure have to exceed to pump blood into the
systemic circuit? Why?
35. What pressure does the right ventricle have to overcome to pump blood into the pulmonary
circuit? Why?
36. Why is the right ventricular wall thinner than the left?
37. What is cardiac output?
38. What is the definition of end systolic volume, end diastolic volume, and stroke volume?
39. How do ESV, EDV, heart rate, and stroke volume affect cardiac output?
40. What three things regulate stroke volume?
41. According to the Frank-Starling law of the heart what is the critical factor controlling stroke
volume?
42. What happens inside the cardiac myocytes when preload is increased? Can preload be
increased too much? What happens in that case? How will this affect stroke volume?
43. What 2 things will increase pre-load? How can you increase the time of ventricular filling?
How can you increase the rate of ventricular filling? If you got the same answer I did doesn’t
that seem contradictory? So what’s the point?
44. How will an increase in free intracellular calcium affect the myocardium? (Choose one of the
following – it’s a multiple choice study guide question.)
A. Relaxation
B. Contraction
C. Repolarization
D. Return to the resting membrane potential
45. What is the Bainbridge reflex?
46. How does congestive heart failure affect the pooling of blood in the body? Failure on which
side of the heart will affect the systemic and pulmonic circuits respectively?
47. What is the ductus arteriosus? What is the fossa ovalis? What is the foramen ovale? What
is the ligamentum arteriosum? What is the ductus venosus?
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Bio 211 Exam 2 Study Guide
Chapter 19
1. What is the difference between veins and arteries (which has more elastic tissue, smooth
muscle, larger lumen, connective tissue, valves, etc.)?
2. What makes up the tunica intima? Tunica media? Tunica adventitia? What are the
functions of the layers?
3. What are vasa vasorum?
4. What is the structural and functional difference between elastic arteries and muscular
arteries? What is an arteriole?
5. How is the structure of a capillary wall like that of a vein or artery? How is it different?
6. Which blood vessels are exchange vessels?
7. What are the different types of capillaries? How is the difference in their structure reflected
in their function?
8. What is a precapillary sphincter?
9. What does the term “capacitance vessel” mean? To what type of blood vessel does this
term refer?
10. What is a venule?
11. What is an anastomosis? What is a collateral channel?
12. What is a sinus?
13. What are varicose veins?
14. Define blood flow.
15. What is blood pressure?
16. What is a pressure gradient? Does blood flow up or down a pressure gradient?
17. What is resistance?
18. What things affect peripheral resistance in the cardiovascular system? What has the
greatest effect?
19. What is the systolic blood pressure? What is diastolic blood pressure?
20. What is the pulse pressure?
21. What is mean arterial pressure and how is it calculated?
22. What is the blood pressure in capillaries? What is the difference in pressure between the
arterial end and the venous end of the capillary bed?
23. What is the approximate range of pressure in the venous system?
24. What factors aid venous return?
25. What do baroreceptors sense?
26. How do blood volume, peripheral resistance, cardiac output, blood viscosity, vasodilation,
vasoconstriction, etc. affect arterial blood pressure?
27. What are short-term regulators of blood pressure? What are long-term regulators of blood
pressure? (I told you that you would see that renin-angiotensin thing again)
28. What is hypertension? What is the difference between primary and secondary? What
will hypertension do for you? What are the risk factors?
29. What is tissue perfusion?
30. Where is the velocity of blood flow greatest? Where is it lowest? How does that work?
31. How is blood flow through individual organs or tissues regulated? What is the difference
between the metabolic and myogenic mechanism? Describe how both work.
32. What is long-term autoregulation?
33. What does Starlings Law of the Capillary tell us about filtration and reabsorption at the
arteriolar end of the capillary, the venous end of the capillary, and the net force over the
entire capillary?
34. What is circulatory shock? What causes it? Differentiate between hypovolemic,
vascular, and cardiogenic. What is transient vascular shock?
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Bio 211 Exam 2 Study Guide
35. What things are compensatory responses to circulatory shock?
36. What is atherosclerosis?
Chapter 22
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
What are the major functions of the respiratory system?
What are the functions of the nose?
What structures are found in the nasal vestibule? What is the function of the vibrissae?
What is the difference between olfactory mucosa and respiratory mucosa?
What are the functions of the conchae?
How are dust and other small particles prevented from entering the lungs?
What are the functions of the sinuses?
Compare and contrast the divisions of the pharynx. (What are they, how are they alike, how
are they different)
9. What is the location of the uvula and what does it do?
10. What are the fauces?
11. Where are the pharyngeal, palatine, and lingual tonsils located? ("In the pharynx" is not the
best answer to prepare for the test)
12. The epithelium changes between the nasopharynx and oropharynx. What is the major
difference and why does the epithelium undergo this change?
13. What is the larynx? What are its two main functions? What is its third function?
14. How many cartilages make up the framework of the larynx? What type of cartilage are
they? Which one is different in composition? What type of cartilage is it? Why? (What is
its function?)
15. Where is the Adam's apple located? (In the center of which cartilage?)
16. What is the difference between the vocal folds and the vestibular folds (location and
function)
17. What is the opening between the mucosal folds that comprise the vocal and vestibular folds
called?
18. How do the vocal cords and glottis contribute to vocal tone and pitch?
19. What is Valsalva's maneuver?
20. What is the position of the trachea relative to the esophagus?
21. What might be found in the mucosa, submucosa, and adventitia? (note the resumption of
pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium below the level of the epiglottis)
22. Why are the cartilage rings C shaped?
23. What is the carina? What is its function?
24. Describe the bronchial tree: What is the difference between primary and secondary bronchi?
What is the difference between bronchi and bronchioles? What are terminal bronchioles,
respiratory bronchioles, and alveolar ducts? What structural changes occur as the bronchial
tree branches to ever smaller tubes?
25. What are alveoli? What are their walls composed of? What is the respiratory membrane?
26. What is surfactant?
27. What is the difference between Type I and Type II cells?
28. What are "dust cells"?
29. Which lung is larger? Which lung has more lobes? How many does it have?
30. Identify the cardiac notch, root, hilus, apex, and base.
31. How do the lungs receive nutrients?
32. What is a bronchopulmonary segment? What is a lobule?
33. What is the pulmonary pleura composed of?
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Bio 211 Exam 2 Study Guide
34. Describe the innervation of the lungs.
35. What is pulmonary ventilation?
36. What does pressure have to do with air movement? Do gases flow up or down a pressure
gradient?
37. What is the difference (definition and number) between intrapulmonary pressure and
intrapleural pressure?
38. What factors contribute to the difference?
39. What is a pneumothorax? What is atelectasis?
40. What is Boyle's Law?
41. How does inspiration occur? What muscles are involved?
42. What process do the accessory muscles assist in?
43. How does expiration work (2 factors)? Is it active or passive? What about forced
expiration?
44. What factors influence ventilation?
45. What factors influence resistance?
46. What is compliance? What things will decrease compliance?
47. What is elasticity? What will cigarettes do for it?
48. How does surface tension affect ventilation? Does surfactant increase or decrease surface
tension? How?
49. Know your volumes and capacities.
50. What is dead space? What is the difference between anatomical and alveolar dead space?
51. What will pulmonary function tests tell you (FVC, FEV)?
52. What is the difference between obstructive pulmonary disease and restrictive disorders?
53. What is MRV? What is AVR?
54. By what process are oxygen and carbon dioxide exchanged in the lungs and through cell
membranes?
55. What is Dalton's law of partial pressures? In practical terms, what does this mean regarding
gas exchange?
56. What is Henry's Law and how does it affect gas exchange?
57. What is hyperbaric oxygen?
58. List (and understand) 4 factors that influence gas exchange.
59. What is ventilation - perfusion coupling?
60. How is oxygen transported in the blood?
61. Understand the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve.
62. What is the % saturation of hemeglobin in the lungs? In venous blood? How many mmHg
is that?
63. What is venous reserve?
64. How does temperature affect the association of oxygen with hemoglobin? Does this push
the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve to the right or left? (or both or either)
65. How are CO2, blood pH, the Bohr effect, and oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation related?
66. So what does this say about muscles working in anaerobic conditions?
67. What does BPG have to do with the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve?
68. What is the hemoglobin - nitric oxide partnership?
69. What is hypoxia and what does it result from?
70. How is CO2 transported in the blood (3 ways)?
71. I would know that carbonic acid/bicarbonate ion buffer system equation:
(CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3 ↔ H+ + HCO3-)
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72. What is chloride shift?
73. What is the Haldane effect?
74. What is the function of the VRG? What is the function of the DRG? Where are these
respiratory groups located? Where are the inspiratory and expiratory neurons found?
75. What is the function of the pontine respiratory centers?
76. List 6 factors that affect respiratory rate and depth
77. How do the cerebral cortex and hypothalamus influence respiratory rate and depth?
78. What is the Hering-Breuer reflex?
79. Is CO2 more likely to to stimulate increased respiration centrally or peripherally? How about
O2? Which mechanism is more important in healthy people?
80. Define hypercapnia, hypocapnia, hyperventilation, apnea, eupnea, hyperpnea.
81. What is the danger of hyperventilation?
82. Under what circumstance does nitrogen as a respiratory gas become a problem?
83. What is COPD? Compare and contrast emphysema and bronchitis. What is the major causal
factor in these diseases?
84. Is there any relation between cigarettes and lung cancer?
85. How does the fetus exchange gases? What stimulates the first breath?
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