MOLECULES & CELL STRUCTURE
Cell structures, and Components
It is known that any living cell consist manly of water (70%), 1% ions, 6% small
organic molecules, and 23% macromolecules. Hence, the cells consist mainly of
carbon with H, N, P, and S.
Macromolecules: composed of small organic molecules (e.g. proteins: amino acids;
starch: sugar; DNA and RNA: nucleotides; fats and lipid: fatty acids.
Both micro and Macro molecules should consist of atoms; those atoms consist of
nucleus (Protons+ Neutrons) and orbited by negative charges of electrons. Those
electrons are moved around the nucleus in orbits (1st:2, 2nd:8, 3rd:8, 4th:18,5th: 18).
The unfilled orbit is less stable than filled, and atom could lose or gain electrons in
order to reach its stable condition. These interactions forming chemical bonds within
atoms of the molecules.
Type of Bonds:
Covalent Bonds: two atoms share one or more pairs of electrons. In one covalent
bond, one pair is shared. Double covalent bonds, two paired are shared. Triples, three
are shared. It is common to see one, double, and rear to see triple. Why?
Covalent bonds have characteristic geometries, as atoms can generally rotate freely in
single bonds, and this freedom decline for double bonds. When different atoms have
different abilities to attract shared electrons, polar covalent bond is formed (e.g.
water)
All covalent N-H and O-H bonds are polar
All CH bonds are non-polar
Polar molecules are hydrophilic, where non-polar molecules are hydrophobic
Covalent bonds are asymmetry, and in biological systems where carbon atom is main
components in organic molecules. Isomers such as L or D of amino acids could exist
with different biological properties. Other examples in carbohydrate are found in
glucose and mannose with different biological roles. Cellulose with alpha 1-4 bonds
could be digested by human, while beta 1-4 bonds are not.
Noncovalent Bonds:
These are important bonds for biological activities, as energy release from their
formation is only 1-5 kcal/mol. These bonds could be broken at body or room
temperature with less kinetic energy.
Hydrogen Bonds:
They are usually formed between two polar molecules such as water. The presence of
hydroxyl or amino groups will result in making the molecules more soluble in water.
Ionic Interactions:
In this type of bonds, electrons are never shared and do not have specific geometries.
Van deer Waals Interactions:
Interactions resulted from indiscriminate change in the distribution of ions around two
atoms as they become close to approaches. They are common in enzymes.
Hydrophobic Bonds:
Molecules have strong tendency to interact with one another. Less ability to dissolve
in water. Amphipathic: one part of molecule interacts with water, and the other does
not.
Chemical Equilibrium and Equilibrium constant
Various chemicals and reactions take place in the living cells, and the direction of
reactions basically depend on the input and the out put of those processes. Reactions
seized when chemical equilibriums points are reached. Reactants in their chemical
reactions are influenced by their concentrations. When the rate of both side of
reactants and products in the chemical equation are equal, the chemical reaction
reaches equilibrium. The equilibrium constant could be calculated by dividing
products to reactants and it is independent of the reaction rate.
PH
It is defined as the concentration of hydrogen ion in solution. PH of 7 is considered to
be neutral, while above it considered base and below it as acid. Basically, any
molecules that release protons are considered to be acids, while those accept it called
base. Living cells keeping their pH by maintaining sufficient weak acid and base
which helps in controlling various reactions at different pH.
Energy
There are various sources of energy, including: Thermal, radiant, electrical.
Cells could use thermal energy to keep and maintain temperature, while using light
for example to carry out photosynthesis, and moving electrons in the case of
electrical.
Energy could be stored as potential energy through storage in compounds such sugar,
or as concentration gradients or results of charges separation. Free energy G is a
measure of potential energy, where reaction direction will be influenced by both
reactants and products. It is influenced by temperature, pressure, and concentration of
all chemicals entering the reactions (reactants and products). Delta G is important in
this case, and could be calculated by subtract the G of the products from the reactants.
If delta G is negative, the forward reaction will be carried out spontaneously
If delta G is positive, the reverse reaction will be carried out spontaneously
If delta G is Zero, the reaction is at equilibrium.
Oxidation-Reduction and activation energy
When atom or molecule lose its electrons it means that it is oxidize, and when gaining
electron it means that it is reduced. The ability of each atom or molecules to loose or
accept electrons called redox potential. Negative redox means atom or molecules
means good electron donors, and positive redox, means good accepter.
In living cells there are various process in which molecules and atoms with various
delta G ( Negative and positive) are combined in order to carry out various activities,
molecules such ATPs are important in initiate various chemical reactions and
activities including: generation of electrical and concentration gradient.
Reactions are carried out through one or more transition state with its free energy is
more than the reactants or the products. Enzymes are useful in accelerate reactions by
lowering down the activation energy.
Proteins
All cells consist of proteins in various quantities, as proteins are considered to be
diverse molecules with wide range of molecular weight. Their function and
contribution to cell structures, and metabolic activities are tremendous. They are
important in diet of human, and other living organisms. Their chemical structure
consist of C, H, O, N, and S. The N presence distinguish protein from carbohydrate.
Proteins are consists of amino acids with amino group and carboxyl group. These
amino acids are joined through peptide bonds. The primary structure is the sequence
of amino acids, and the secondary structure is related to the orientation of the amino
acid chain, while the tertiary structure is related to the 3D of its shape. Globular
proteins are spherical in shape of their tertiary structure, and consider soluble at low
ionic concentration, these includes proteins from eggs, and milk. However, fibrous
proteins have elongated structures and generally insoluble at low ionic concentrations,
these includes founds in the muscles.
Amino acids forming proteins have the potential to be charged at certain pH. These
charges are governed by the composition of the amino acids forming the protein at
certain pH. The isoelectric point (pI) for protein is defined as the pH that the protein
has no net charge. Protein could be denatured as molecules of the protein unfold and
peptide linkages maintained. When protein reaches later stage of denature and the
proteins bind together to form a gel matrix it called coagulation. Various activities
such as heat, mechanical stress, and changes of pH will results in denature. Proteins
could be degraded by enzymes called proteases as it will break down its peptide
linkages. The balance of important amino acid in food is defined as biological value
of protein. Essential amino could be defined as those must be consumed, and could
not be synthesized. There are 8 amino acids that are important to human.
CHAPTER 1
Biology:
bios-life, logos – knowledge
Branch of biology
Zoology
Botany
Other Microbiology (bacteriology, mycology, virology)
In the 19th and 20th centuries biologists ere concerned with anatomy.
Embryology – embryo development
Taxonomy – classification
Histology - tissue
Developmental biology – Mechanism
Cell biology (cytology)
Natural history
1. Behavior
2. Ecology
Level of Organization
1. Reductionism (looking to parts
2. Holistic (looking as a whole)
Methods of investigation in biology
Fig. 1.4 Page 4
Living Organisms carried out those functions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Reproduction
Respiration
Nutrition
Excretion
Growth
Responsiveness
Movement
CHAPTER 2


1828 German chemist Friedrich wohler synthesize organic compound area.
Main organic compound in organisms are:
12345-
Carbohydrates
Fats
Proteins
Nucleic acids
Vitamins
Non organic (Minerals and water)
Macronutrient and Micronutrient
Water
12345-
Solvent properties (Polar, 105oH).
Heat capacity (high specific heat)
Surface tension (Song Cohesive Force)
Freezing properties (great density at 4)
Transparency (Light Penetration)
Carbohydrates:


Contain only carbon, hydrogen and oxygen with ratio approximately 2:1 H:O
Provide good source of energy for animal and important role in structure such as
cellulose.
1- Monosacchrides (glucose)
2- Disaccharides
3- Polysaccharides
4Monosaccharide
Condensation
< —————— >
Hydrolysis
Lipids





Few oxygen molecules
Do not dissolve in water
Fats and oils are compounds of glycerol and fatty acids
Important source of energy
Cell membrane contain phospholipids
polysaccharide
CHAPTER 3
The cell as a basic unit
Robert Hooke: describe cell in 1665 by examining thin section of cork
Cell theory: First proposed by Schleiden and Schwann in 1839. It state that
Cells are a universal occurrence and the basic unit of an organism.
CHAPTER 7
Movement in and out of cells
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Diffusion
Facilitated diffusion
Osmosis
Active transport
Endocytosis and exocytosis
1. Diffusion
 The net movement of molecules or ions from a region of their higher concentration
to a region of their lower concentration.

Concentration gradient or diffusion gradient different in concentration between the
two regions. e.g. Respiration
Fick's law:
Rate of diffusion &
surface area x concentration difference
Diffusion distance
Channel proteins: Ions pass through the plasma Membrane "gate channel".
Fig. 7.2
2. Facilitated diffusion:
Diffusing molecule combine with a carrier protein which transport it across the
membrane and deposit it on the other side.
Fig. 7.3
3. Osmosis
The net movement of water molecules from a region of their high concentration to a
region of their lower concentration through a partially permeable membrane.
Fig. 7.4
Water potential: energy of the water molecules to diffuse from high to low
Concentration
Fig. 7.5