CULTURAL ELEMENTS IN THE TRANSLATION OF
MAHFOOZ'S THE BEGINNING AND THE END
AND PALACE OF DESIRE
Ahmed-Sokarno Abdel-Hafiz
South Valley University
nIrtnudortnI
Translation is considered a platform for communication between people of
different cultures. As pointed out by Gerding-Salas (2000: 1), "the main aim
of translation is to serve as a cross-cultural bilingual communication vehicle
among peoples." Novelists rely on their cultural background when they
write a novel, and readers of translated novels learn a lot about the culture of
the society which has produced the novel. It should be kept in mind that by
culture we mean all aspects of life including our social and religious rituals.
Failure to convey these cultural aspects to novel readers should result in our
inability to communicate with peoples belonging to other cultures.
Therefore, a translator is expected to give more attention to the cultural
aspects that permeate the novels they translate. In the words of GerdingSalas (2000:2),
The translator plays an important role as a bilingual or multilingual cross-cultural transmitter of culture and truths by
attempting to interpret concepts and speech in a variety of texts
as faithfully and accurately as possible.
Translators may use different strategies to cope with cultural elements in
translation: e.g. transliterating and paraphrasing. The former strategy relies
on rendering the items in the Source Language (SL). The latter strategy
gives periphrastic explanation in a footnote (Shunnaq 1998:43)
The Purpose of the study
The study embarks upon examining the way cultural elements are translated
in two of Naguib Mahfouz's novels, The Beginning and the End and The
Palace of Desire. The paper intends to point out that the translator of these
novels failed to fully utilize the strategies (e.g. paraphrasing, transliteration,
annotation, etc.) that are available for coping with the cultural elements
which permeate these novels. These cultural elements fall into different
categories: religion, politics, food, music etc. Some of these culture-bound
items resist translation and need special attention. As Shunnaq (1998:42)
1
puts it, "the Arab translator may find certain lexical items in Arabic that
have no equivalences in English".
The Significance of the Study
The novels, The Beginning and the End and The Palace of Desire, have
been selected because the former is translated by a native speaker of the
target language (TL), i.e. Arabic, Ramsis Awad, whereas the latter is
translated by a native speaker of the SL, i.e. English. This study points out
that the translator, who is a native speaker of the SL, is more likely to be
inattentive to culture-specific items. Such a study can help us discover the
appropriate strategies for dealing with culture-bound items and expressions,
thus showing how translation can attain its goal of enhancing
communication among people. According to Shunnaq (1998:44), "when
translating, a translator has to bear in mind the fact that he should exchange
ideas and messages and not merely words. Taking this into consideration,
the translator should be familiar with and sensitive to the SL culture". The
novel, the translation of which we are studying, was written by a worldrenowned figure, whose works serve as a source of knowledge about Arab
culture. Inattention to the cultural elements in our translation of his works
might play a role in hindering our efforts to close the gap between the
Western culture and the Arab culture. In addition, the work "may turn out to
be lacking in cultural characteristics and fail to maintain the special images
within a culture."
Methodology
Translation scholars have often been interested in equivalence as a major
technique in translating a text from one language into another. As Faiq
(1998: 224) states: "The quest for equivalence has long exercised both
translation theorists and practitioners and remains one of the problematic
areas in translation theory." It was Nide (1964) who discarded such terms as
'literal', 'free', and 'faithful' and replaced them with two basic types of
equivalence: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence (cf. Munday
2001: 41). Formal equivalence "focuses attention on the message itself, in
both form and content" (Nida 1964: 159 cited in Munday 2001: 41). This
technique can make use of “scholarly footnotes allowing student…to gain
close access to the language and customs of the source culture.” (Munday
2001:41). The dynamic approach seeks for “the closest natural equivalent to
the source language message” (Nida 1964: 166; Nida and Taber 1969: 12
cited in Munday 2001: 42). According to Munday (2001: 42): "This
2
receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations, of grammar, of lexicon,
and of cultural references to be essential to achieve naturalness; the TT
should not show interference from the SL."
This interest in equivalence has been manifested in the works of Catford
(1965), who refers to formal correspondent and textual equivalent. But
Catford recognizes the difficulty of finding equivalents. In such a case a
translation shift is "deemed to have occurred". This study shows that
reliance on equivalence is not viable if the two languages are as remote as
English and Arabic. Thus all theories of equivalence—Nida' s formal and
dynamic equivalence; Catford's (1965) formal correspondent and textual
equivalent; Newmark's (1981) communicative and semantic translation—
fail to deal with cultural concepts that resist translation. As Shunnaq (1998:
42) argues, “in some cases, the Arab translator may find certain lexical
items in Arabic that have no equivalences in English because the concepts
they refer to do not exist in English. Such items are normally culture-bound
items in Arabic”.
The theory proposed by Vinay and Darbelnet (2000) is appropriate for such
situations. Their model is based on two strategies: direct translation and
oblique translation. The former strategy comprises three procedures: (a)
borrowing, (b) calque, and (c) literal translation. Of interest to us here is
borrowing which permits the SL word to be "directly transferred to the TL"
(Munday 2001: 56). Transliteration is often used to transfer words from SL
to TL. This procedure is particularly useful if the SL word has no equivalent
of any type in the TL. The second strategy—oblique translation—has four
procedures: (a) transposition, (b) modulation, (c) equivalence, (d)
adaptation. In the absence of equivalence in the TL, adaptation can be used.
Adaptation “involves changing the cultural reference when a situation in the
source culture does not exist in the target culture” (Munday 2001: 58). But
note that this technique, which is receptor-oriented, obliterates the cultural
component of the text: the cultural aspects of the text, especially of a novel,
are considered indispensable, and a translator must not deny the readers the
cultural flavor of the society which has produced the novel. Therefore,
transliteration is considered superior to adaptation, but it must be
supplemented with the footnote technique that Nida (1964) has suggested
for his strategy—formal equivalence. This technique should provide
explanations for the SL items that are closely associated with the source
culture.
I will conduct a close parallel study of each of Mahfouz's novels under study
and its English translation in an attempt to shed light on the translation of
3
the culture-bound elements in the originals. As previously pointed out, the
translator of The Beginning and the End is a native speaker of Arabic and is
a member of the source culture. The way he deals with cultural elements in
this novel will be compared to the way a native speaker of English has
handled similar cultural elements in the translation of The Palace of Desire.
Previous Studies
Translation problems have always preoccupied Arab translation theorists
and practitioners. Shunnaq (1998) has referred to a wide variety of
problems: he deals with issues related to syntax; text-type; emotiveness,
cultural expression, and lexical non-equivalence. The issue of equivalence
has received much attention. Kharma (1991) has been interested in
examining the problems associated with the translation of verb phrase forms
into Arabic and vice versa. Ghazala (1995) has pointed out the importance
of stylistic equivalence in English-Arabic translation. Faiq (1998) has
focused on the translation of Koran metaphorical expressions into English.
As for the studies that are associated with the translated novels of Naguib
Mahfouz, we can refer to the work of Aziz (1998), which discusses the role
of pragmatic meaning in translation. He cites examples from Zuqaq alMidaq to show how “the English translator chooses understatement, to
translate the examples of overstatement in the source text” (Aziz 1998:
133). Also Farqhal and Borini (1998) discuss the pragmalinguistic difficulty
of translating Arabic politeness formulas into English. These formulas are
collected from the English translation of Mahfouz's novel Awlad Haritnas
or Children of Gebelawi, as translated by Stewart (1981). Abdel-Hafiz
(2002) handles pragmatic and linguistic problems in the English translation
of Naguib Mahfouz's The Thief and the Dogs; but he does not discuss any
problems pertaining to culture in this novel. To my knowledge, the question
of how culture-bound items in Mahfouz's novels have been translated has
not received the scrutiny and attention it deserves.
The addition of extra words to clarify the meaning
This is elaboration on the part of the translator who may depend on
pragmatic inference to supplement the text with information that does not
exist in the original text. The author of the original text depends on the
shared cultural knowledge with his target readers. But the translated text is
prepared for a different group of readers who do not share the same cultural
background. Therefore, elaboration is required on the part of the translator.
Note that in the following extract, the cultural word is translated and is then
subjected to elaboration:
4
‫وك ان ح س ين ي ب كى ول سان ه ي ت لو ب طري قة آل ية ب عض ال سور‬
7 ،‫ ب داي ة ون هاي ة‬،‫ال ص غ يرة ا س ت نزاال ل لرحمة‬
Hussein was weeping, mechanically reciting short verses
(from the Koran) asking for God's mercy to fall on his dead
father. The Beginning and the End, p.17.
Another example with religious reference can be seen in the following
excerpt, where a religious phrase is translated and elaborated to help foreign
readers understand the significance of the event referred to:
‫احد وجاء ع يد األ ضحى ف جذب أف كار األ سرة وعواط فها إل ى واد و‬
111‫ص‬.،‫ ب داي ة ون هاي ة‬،‫ت ل ت قى ف يه ذك ري ات األم س وال يوم‬
The arrival of the great feast day of the year, the Bairam,
celebrating God's intervention in the sacrifice of Abraham's
son, focused the family's thoughts and sentiments on their
shared memories. The Beginning and the End, p.128
Elaboration can be employed without being necessarily accompanied by a
translation. In the following excerpts, when the 'Al-fatihat' is first mentioned
in the original text, the translator has to explain the meaning of the word
without translating or transliterating it:
911‫ص‬.،‫ب داي ة ون هاي ة‬.‫ال برك ة ف ى ع ي ن يك أن ت‬
then let us depend on your eyes, The Beginning and the End,
p.136
35‫ ص‬،‫ ب داي ة ون هاي ة‬،‫ف ل ن قرأ ال فات حة‬
--Let's recite the opening Exordium of the Koran, The
Beginning and the End, p. 53.
But when the same word recurs elsewhere, the translator transliterates it:
04‫ ص‬،‫ ب داي ة ون هاي ة‬،‫وق رأوا ال فات حة جم ي عا‬
They all recited AL-Fatihat, The Beginning and the End, p.
53.
In the translation of Palace of Desire by Huchins, et al, the word ‫ال فات حة‬,
which occurs several times, is never transliterated. A phrase is often
provided: opening prayer of the Qu'an.
Some famous Arab musicians or leaders are sometimes mentioned in a
novel. The translator must keep in mind that these figures are unknown to
5
foreign leaders. Therefore, additional information is needed about them, as
in:
..‫ىزاجح ةمالس هلعفي ناك ام وهو‬، ‫ةياهنو ةيادب‬، ‫ص‬43
It is what the greatest singer Salama Hijazi used to do, The
Beginning and the End, p.56.
Note that Mahfouz did not need to identify Salama Hijazi, for he knows that
his Arab readers know him very well.
Illegitimate elaboration
The translator has managed by adding information that does not exist in the
original text: there is nothing in the SL text that indicates it was Hassan who
first saw the two persons wearing peasant clothes.
‫جل وأمراة ف ى ث ياب ري ف ية وع ند ال ضحى أق بل ع ل يهم ر‬
11 ‫ ص‬،‫ ب داي ة ون هاي ة‬،‫ف عرف وا خال تهم وزوجها عم ف رج س ل يمان‬
Hassan broke off his thoughts as he saw a man and a woman
approaching in peasant clothes, the brothers recognized them
as their aunt and her husband Amm Farag Soliman. The
Beginning and the End, p. 21
`
Sometimes the translator relies on conventional implication in order to
insert additional information:
‫ول ست طماعا ف ما ت ري د إال ال ل قمة وال س ترة وك م ك أ سا من‬
‫ب داي ة‬،‫ وك م امرأة من ال ن ساء‬،‫ وك م ن ف سا من ال ح ش يش‬،‫ال كون ياك‬
.93‫ ص‬،‫ون هاي ة‬
…and you're not greedy, all that you need are some morsels
of bread, clothing, a few glasses of cognac, some hashish to
smoke, and a few women to sleep with. The Beginning and
the End, p. 53
The items listed have conventional meanings associated with them. Any
reader can figure out how these items are used. However, the translator has
opted to provide additional information as to their use. He has relied on their
conventional or associative meanings
Sometimes the translator unnecessarily elaborates on SL words which
already have TL equivalents, as in
-- ‫وإذا ك ان االن سان من غ ير مؤاخذة س كران أو م سطوال؟ ب داي ة‬
34‫ص‬،‫ون هاي ة‬
6
Excuse me. But if one is under the effect of alcohol or
hashish, The Beginning and the End, p.56.
The word 'intoxicated' can be used to refer to a person under the influence of
alcohol or drugs. The use of the word hashish to convey the meaning of the
SL word ‫ م سطو ال‬is not adequate, for there are other drugs that can cause the
same effect.
Elaboration is not often associated with a single word. A phrase or a
sentence can be elaborated. For example, elaboration occurs if implicit
performative acts in the SL are turned into explicit acts in the TL:
--04.‫ ص‬،‫ ب داي ة ون هاي ة‬...‫ون ارج ي لة‬
"And bring a nargileh, too, The Beginning and the End, p.54
--‫ح الوة طحي‬57‫ ص‬،‫ ب داي ة ون هاي ة‬،‫ن ية ب قرش‬
"Give me one piaster's worth of Tahinia sweets, The
Beginning and the End, p. 91
Failure to elaborate
The translator is expected to interfere by elaborating and explaining the part
of text that has been transliterated. Transliteration is a tool available to
translators whenever they encounter cultural or religious entities that resist
translation. Since transliteration is not adequate in reflecting the meaning
intended by the author of the SL text, the translator should use elaboration
as a strategy that explains the intended meaning. Otherwise, the reader is
left in a dilemma, not knowing what to do with the transliterated part of the
text, as in:
‫ ب داي و‬،"‫ أظ ن نى أن فع " س ن يدا‬،‫س بق أن جرب ت نى ك س ن يد‬
221‫ ص‬،‫ون هاي ة‬
You tried me out as a Sannid, chanting refrains for you, and I
think I'm the right man for the job. The Beginning and the
End, p.139
To transliterate without elaborating is quite useless. The word Sannid,
which is a transliterated word, is unintelligible to any native speaker of
English for this word is not available in any English dictionary. The
translator has overcome this problem by putting a few words that explain
the meaning of this word.
Unfortunately, the translator does not adhere to this strategy throughout the
translating process: he starts using transliteration without elaboration.
7
The word "Amm", which has been translated, could be taken as part of the
name, whereas it is often used as a term of respect.
The same thing can be said about the following:
21‫ ص‬،‫ ب داي ة ون هاي ة‬،‫ف ري د أف ندى محمد‬
Farid Effendi Mohammed, The Beginning and the End, p. 22
Effendi is a titled that is used in reference to educated people. Such a
transliteration gives a false impression that it is a middle name.
،‫من ن قوده رحمه هللا ع ل ية‬...‫هذه ال بدل ة ال تى ت ج عل م نك أف ندي ا‬
93‫ ص‬،‫ب داي ة ون هاي ة‬
Even this suit you're wearing, which makes you look not too
bad an Effendi, comes with his money. The Beginning and
the End, p.52
Arabic has a word for a father's brother and a completely different word for
a mother's brother. Since English has only one word which covers both
meanings, any translator finds himself/herself at a loss, as in:
....‫اهجوزو مهتلاخ امهيف اوفرعف‬. ‫اهنو ةيادب‬11‫ص‬،‫ي ة‬
The brothers recognized them as their aunt and her husband.
The Beginning and the End, p. 21.
The translator should have pointed out whether the word aunt refers to a
father's sister or a mother's sister. The two Arabic words occur in the SL text
as in:
23‫ ص‬،‫ب داي ة ون هاي ة‬..!‫ال أعمام وال أخوال‬
No uncles on either side! The Beginning and the End, p. 44
The translator has used the phrase "on either side" This attempt does not
convey the intended meaning. This can be considered an example of
miselaboration. The translator of Palace of Desire has appropriately dealt
with these terms, which have no exact counterparts in English:
58‫ ص‬،‫ ق صر ال شوق‬،‫سل أخوال ك ي ا روح أمك‬
Ask your maternal uncles about that, love child, Palace of
Desire, p. 622.
8
Some cultural words cannot stand transliteration without elaboration and
explanation; the non-Arab reader of the translated text cannot understand
the denotative and connotative nuances of the word:
02‫ص‬،‫ ب داي ة ون هاي ة‬،‫ك ل ال م صروف؟! وال م ل يم‬
All our pocket money! Not a millieme? The Beginning and
the End, p. 32.
-- ،‫ ب داي ة ون هاي ة‬،‫ال أدف ع م ل يما واحدا أك ثر من ث الث ج ن يهات‬
44‫ص‬
I will not pay one millieme more than three pounds, The
Beginning and the End, p. 58
The religious words used by a novelist might be familiar only to those who
believe in it. Followers of other religions might find the religious words
strange and unintelligible. Again, the novelist who composed the original
text might decide that such words, which are common, need not be
explained or elaborated. The translator, who aims at a different group of
readers, should attempt to explain such religious terms. The translator of the
novel, to whom these words are familiar, has probably thought such words
are not in need of elaboration or explanation:
-- ‫ ب داي ة‬،‫ال مهم األذان ن ف سه ف ى هذه ال ساعة ال م ب كرة‬34‫ ص‬،‫ون هاي ة‬
What matters is AL Azz'n itself. The Beginning and the End,
p.56.
Some famous names to Arabs might be unknown to foreign readers. Such
names need further elaboration in a translated text; the translator failed to do
so:
..‫دعب لوألا عيذملا تنكل هدحو نفلا هجو ىعرت ةطحملا تناك ولو‬
‫أم ك ل ثوم وع بد ال وهاب‬
24 ‫ ص‬،‫ب داي ة ون هاي ة‬
If the stations were really aware of art, I should stand next to
Um Kalthum and Abdul Wahab. The Beginning and the End,
p. 55.
Note that this part of the TL text refers to these names for the first time.
These names are quite familiar to Arabs for they are famous musicians and
singers. The translator, being a member of the Arab society, did not pay
attention to this fact. Hence he failed to say a few words about these figures.
The result is that the reader of the translated text is left dumbfounded and
perplexed, for s/he has no idea who these people are.
9
In contrast, the translators of Palace of Desire often give extra information
concerning musicians, dancers or politicians who are unfamiliar or unknown
to foreign readers:
‫ث م ا ش ترك ح س ين وإ سماع يل وح سن ف ى حدي ث عن م ن يرة و س يد‬
02‫ ص‬،‫ ق صر ال شوق‬،‫دروي ش و صال ح وع بد ال لط يف ال ب نا‬
Husayn, Ismail and Hasan all got involved in a conversation
about the outstanding musicians of the day: Munira alMahdiya, Sayyid Darwish, Salih Abde al-Hayy and Abd alLatif al-Bana, Palace of Desire, p.554.
Sometimes, the novelist may use the name of a woman artist in order to
convey an implication. The implication is available to the translator who
pays attention to the cultural background. Thus in the following excerpt, the
conventional implication associated with Bamba Kashar is quite familiar to
the readers of the native culture; therefore, Mahfouz did not need to
elaborate on the name. The translator has to dig out the implicit meaning:
--54‫ ص‬،‫ ق صر ال شوق‬،‫أ ش كرك ي ا ب م بة ك شر‬
Thank you, Miss Bamba Khashar, you seductive songstress.
Palace of Desire, p. 580.
The political figures and events are not adequately elaborated upon by the
translator of The Beginning and the End. The last names of the famous
politicians remain intact in translation:
‫ل وال ال ط ل بة ما ائ ت لف ال زعماء من ك ان ي ت صور أن ي ج لس صدق ى‬
.891‫ ص‬،‫ ال بداي ة وال نهاي ة‬،‫مع ال نحاس ع لى مائ دة واحدة‬
But for the students, the leaders (of the country) would never
have united. Who would ever have imagined that Sidki
would agree to meet with Nahhas? The Palace and the
Wafidists at the same table, TheBeginning and End, p. 224.
By way of contrast, the following extract shows that the translator is not
satisfied with the words given by the original author, especially as far as
politicians are concerned. Mahfouz in his novel Palace of Desire uses only
the last name to refer to a famous politician of the day. The translators
provide extra information, including full names:
--54‫هال ق ن عت ب أن ي كون ا م ثل عدل ى أو ث روت؟ ق صر ال شوق ص‬
10
"Wouldn't you be satisfied if they were as important as the
politicians Adli Yeken Pasha and Abdel Khaliq Sarwat
Pasha. Palace of Desire, p. 580.
Words referring to special forms of poetry are not transliterated but remain
unexplained by the translator of Palace Walk, thus leaving the reader
confused:
--221‫ ص‬،‫ ب داي ة ون هاي ة‬،‫مواوي ل وأدوار وط قاط يق‬
Yes, mawawil, songs, and takatiqs, The Beginning and the
End, p.139.
In contrast, the translators of Palace of Desire do not hesitate to supplement
the transliteration with further elaboration and explanation so that the reader
can grasp the meaning of the word:
...‫ةيبدأ تالاقم‬، ‫ةينيدو ةيعامتجاو‬، ‫رتنع ةمحلمو‬، ‫ة ليل فلأو‬
45 ،‫ ق صر ال شوق‬،‫وال حما سة وال م ن ف لوطى‬
There had been literary and social essays, religious ones, the
folk epic about Antar—that heroic black poet of ancient
Arabia, The Thousand and One Nights, a medieval anthology
of Arabic poetry called Hamasa, Palace of Desire, p. 589.
Note that the translators have elaborated on cultural elements mentioned in
the original text. Without such an elaboration, the average reader of the
translated work would be in limbo, not knowing what to do with such
expressions or names as Antar and Hamasa.
Each culture has its own cuisine and food types that might not be familiar to
people of other cultures. The novels of Mahfouz contain references to
special Egyptian dishes and foods. The translators should exercise care in
handling such cultural items. The translator of The Beginning and the End
does not often explain or adequately translate food types:
-- ‫ وما من مغن ي س تحق هذا اال سم إال وق د ت عاطى‬،‫ال مخدرات دم ال غ ناء‬
‫ ب داي ة‬،‫من ال مخدرات م ث لما ال تهم من ال م لوخ ية وال فول ال مدمس‬
421‫ ص‬،‫ون هاي ة‬
Narcotics are the lifeblood of vocalizing. Any singer worthy
of the name is as much addicted to drugs as he is to such
basic foods as molokhiva and fool mudammis, The
Beginning and the End, p. 141.
11
Note that the translator has transliterated ‫ف ول‬f sa ‫مدمس‬ool mudammis and
the word ‫ م لوخ ية‬as molokhiva. (1) In contrast, the translators of Palace of
Desire have translated the word ‫ م لوخ ية‬as mallow greens as in
،‫ق صر ال شوق‬...‫ األرز ال م ف ل فل ب ال ك بد وال قوان ص‬،‫ ال م لوخ ية‬،‫ال بطاطس ال ح شو‬
31
The stuffed potatoes, the mallow greens, the fried rice with giblets. Palace
of Desire, p. 566.
Omission
Sometimes a translator can manage by ignoring certain parts of the original
text. This avoidance technique is used for different reasons: (a) the item
might be untranslatable for lack of equivalence in the target language. (b)
the item/phrase might be ideologically or morally unacceptable by the target
readers. (c) the translator might be in disagreement with the meaning which
conveys a bad impression about the source culture
‫ مات ال وال د رحمه هللا‬،‫ "ي ا أب ا ع لى‬:‫راح ي خاطب ن ف سه ق ائ ال‬
‫ف ف قدت ال رك ن ال ذى ك نت ت أوى إل يه‬
93.‫ ص‬،‫ب داي ة ون هاي ة‬
He kept talking to himself, your father (God be merciful to
him) is dead now, you've lost your shelter. The Beginning
and the End, p. 52
Note that the translator has ignored the nickname Aba Ali. In the following,
a word is avoided for there is no equivalence for it in Arabic:
‫ك يف ي م ضى ال ع يد دون أن ن ش بع من ال م شوى وال م س لوق وال محمر‬
311‫ ص‬،‫ب داي ة ون هاي ة‬،‫وال ك ف تة وال ك س ت ل ي تة وال مم بار وال موزة‬
How is it possible for the feast to pass without filling our
bellies with all sorts of meat, with roasted meat, boiled meat,
fried meat, cutlets, sausages, and shin? The Beginning and
the End, p.130.
Notes
1
translators of Palace Walk translated these words as cooked-beans:1
03‫ ص‬،‫ ب ين ال ق صري ن‬،‫وب ائ ع ال فول‬
The cooked-beans vendor, Palace Walk, p.32.
12
References
Abdel-Hafiz, Ahmed-Sokarno. 2002. “Pragmatic and Linguistic Problems in
the Translation of Naguib Mahfouz's The Thief and the Dogs: A Case
Study”. Uluum Al-Lugha 17, pp. 3-28.
Aziz, Y. 1998. “Translation and Pragmatic Meaning”, in A. Shunnaq, et al.
(eds.,) Issues in Translation. Jordan: Irbid National University. pp. 119-141.
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