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CHAPTER ELEVEN: INFINITIVES AND GERUNDS.
In this chapter, we are going to try to explain the different uses of Infinitives and Gerunds. On
certain occasions it is simply a question of logic, but in many other cases it is a question of
knowing what construction you must use after a certain verb, or other grammatical form. We
will deal first of all with the Incomplete Infinitive, (the infinitive without "to,") then the
Complete Infinitive, and finally the Gerund.
11.1 THE INCOMPLETE INFINITIVE
11.1.1 The Incomplete Infinitive is always used for the verb which follows a Modal Auxiliary.
You can help us if you like.
You may find this chapter a little difficult.
They must do their physics more carefully.
11.1.2 It is used after the Auxiliaries "will" and "shall," (for the Future,) "would" (for the
Conditional,) and "should" (expressing moral obligation and so on.)
We will be good if we can stay up late.
They would love to hear you sing.
You should be more polite to your granny!
11.1.3 It is used after the Auxiliary "do," in negative and interrogative forms.
Does this seem clear to you all?
Did Henrietta forget her handbag again?
I don't find that very amusing, George.
11.1.4 It can be used after the verbs "to need" and "to dare." (See 7.12 and 7.13 for the
detailed explanation.)
Need he be so selfish?
You needn't shout, I'm not deaf!
Dare you walk through the wood alone at night?
I daren't go there on my own.
11.1.5 It is used after the verb "to let," expressing permission.
She never lets us watch horror films on T.V.
Wouldn't they let David come with you?
I let her try it once, but she nearly broke it.
11.1.6 It is used after "to make," expressing obligation, or cause and effect.
He will make you work if you go to see him.
This song always makes me think of her.
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(Note that after a passive form of "to make," generally suggesting obligation, a complete
infinitive must be used.)
They were made to wash their own cups after the meal.
11.1.7 It is very often used after the verbs of perception, "to see," "to hear" and "to feel,"
although a present participle is also quite frequent here.
I saw him arrive, but I didn't hear the others leaving.
I felt her touch my arm.
(Note that after a passive form of one of these verbs, the complete infinitive will be used.)
He was heard to say that he disagreed with the President.
11.1.8 It is often used after the verb "to help," although the complete infinitive is also
possible here; (see 11.2.2.)
Help me fasten my shoelaces please, my hands are cold.
(Help me to fasten...)
11.1.9 We quite frequently use the expression "rather than" indicating a preference, and it
again is followed by the infinitive without "to."
Rather than go on your own, why don't you take me along?
They decided to stay in, rather than go out in that rain.
11.1.10 "Would rather," "would sooner," "had rather" and "had sooner" are four invariable
expressions, which give the idea that someone "would prefer to" do something; after them
all, you use the incomplete infinitive. ("Would rather" is the most common of them.)
I would rather eat a good steak. (I'd rather ...)
Would you sooner do it on your own?
They said they had rather not go out tonight.
She'd sooner spend her money on make-up than on books.
11.1.11 "Had better" is an invariable expression, which gives the idea that "it would be a
good idea" to do something, and you use an incomplete infinitive after it.
They had better hurry, or they'll miss their train.
You'd better not forget to put that lot away.
11.1.12 "Except" and "but," both of which have the same meaning here, require an
incomplete infinitive if a verb is to be put after them.
There's nothing to do except wait for them.
She did nothing but eat peanuts all evening.!
11.1.13 "Why" can be followed by an incomplete infinitive, instead of introducing a complete
question-form.
Why worry, I'm sure everything's going to be all right.
Why not try again if you failed the first time?
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11.2 THE COMPLETE INFINITIVE
11.2.1 Many common verbs are followed by a complete infinitive; here is a list of some of the
most frequently-used ones. (Some of the verbs in 11.2.1/2/3/4 will also be seen with a
gerund, but let's take one thing at a time!)
to promise - to agree - to consent - to seem - to learn - to refuse - to hope - to attempt to hesitate - to neglect - to cease - to prepare - to decide - to manage - to arrange - to
swear
I promise to come, if you agree to invite Daphne as well.
They are preparing to attempt to climb the Eiger.
I decided not to say anything about it.
He swore to take bloody revenge for his father's death.
11.2.2 This next group of verbs are followed either (a) by the complete infinitive, or (b) by a
noun or a pronoun plus the complete infinitive.
to want - to wish - to expect - to ask - to beg - to help - to love - to hate - to like - to
prefer - to intend - to mean, (meaning "to intend"), to bear
(a) I want to see you all in my office at three-thirty.
They expect to arrive on Thursday.
They loved to invite lots of people to their parties.
I can't bear to drink tea with milk in it.
(b) He wants us to cooperate as best we can.
They expected all of us to agree with them.
I meant the pupils to think it out for themselves.
She begged me not to go away.
11.2.3 With the next group, there is always a noun or a pronoun between the verb and the
complete infinitive.
to tell - to order - to invite - to oblige - to force - to compel - to forbid - to teach - to
warn - to encourage - to urge - to tempt - to request - to persuade - to coax - to remind to challenge - to enable
I told you to bring your dictionaries today, didn't I?
They had obliged their prisoners to lie on the ground.
I have already warned you not to copy from your neighbour's book!
She tried in vain to coax me to have a glass of whisky.
His help should enable us to succeed.
"To allow," "to permit" and "to advise" also belong here really, but you must note that if the
"other person" concerned is not mentioned, they will be followed by a gerund.
These explanations will permit you to get excellent marks.
I advise each of you to think carefully before you choose.
(They don't allow smoking in the school corridors.)
(Note that in a passive form, the complement preceding the infinitive "disappears," as it has
become the subject of the passive sentence.)
They were invited to have dinner at Buckingham Palace.
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She was warned not to take candy from strangers.
11.2.4 The following verbs can be followed by a noun or a pronoun plus "to be" or "to have,"
although this happens more in the formal, written language than in everyday English; very
often they will be followed by a subordinate clause, in fact.
to think - to believe - to know - to consider - to imagine - to suppose - to feel - to
understand, (meaning "to have been informed")
The government considers him to be an agitator.
We understand her to be ready to sign a confession.
They believe him to be a Russian spy.
(They imagined that I was responsible for his bad temper.)
11.2.5 We frequently find a complete infinitive after an adjective.
I'm happy to say that the situation has got a lot better.
We were sorry to hear you had broken your leg.
Isn't it nice to think that we'll soon be on holiday?
How dreadful to say a thing like that to Mary.
11.2.6 When the adjective is introduced by a verb such as "to be," "to become," "to get," "to
seem" and so on, you often have the infinitive preceded by "for (someone.)"
It's hard for us to be really objective about that.
It's getting easier for me to understand you now.
It would seem advisable for you to be on time.
This often happens with "too" and "enough" as well.
It's all too incredible for me to believe it.
I think this is easy enough for you to understand.
11.2.7 The construction "for somebody to ..." can also be used after the verbs "to wait" and
"to arrange."
I was waiting for her to get ready.
They had arranged for us to visit the factory.
11.2.8 A numeral form can be followed by a complete infinitive.
She was the first to start, but the last to finish.
You're the third person to tell me that this morning!
11.2.9 The complete infinitive can be used to express an intention.
They often came to see us play.
I did that to frighten them!
In written English, this idea is often reinforced by the use of "so as to" or "in order to."
That measure was introduced so as to prevent conflicts.
I'm leaving in order to let you talk about it in private.
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If the intention is negative, "so as not to" is the most commonly used form.
She went out of the room so as not to embarrass us.
The following examples also contain an infinitive which shows you what the purpose or use
of something is.
We couldn't think of anything to talk about.
I've bought a new case to keep my records in.
You will need a pen to write with.
Do you want a glass to drink out of?
We all need someone to talk to at times.
11.2.10 The infinitive can be taken as the subject of a sentence.
To try to swim across that river now would be suicidal.
To learn all this theory seems practically impossible.
(The structure shown in 11.2.6 is of course also possible.)
11.2.11 Note the use of the infinitive in the following examples, in subordinates after the
question-words "how," "when," "what" and "where."
I don't know how to answer your question.
You'll have to tell me when to press the button.
She had no idea at all what to do.
Does anybody here know where to catch the bus?
11.2.12 Note the use of "to" on its own, when the verb itself doesn't need to be repeated.
This is common after the following verbs:
to love - to hate - to like - to want - to prefer - to try - to intend - to mean - to hope
"Did you buy any cheese?" - "No, although I meant to!
"Will you come out with me tonight?" - "Yes, I'd love to!"
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11.3 THE GERUND
11.3.1 The Gerund is the verbal noun, and so it has the properties of both a verb and a
noun. That means that it can be introduced by an article, a possessive form, a
demonstrative or an adjective; it can be the subject or the complement of the verb in your
sentence, as any ordinary noun can; and like a verb it can have a subject, or a complement.
The running he does is quite phenomenal.
Our training is getting harder and harder.
All this learning of grammar is really killing me!
That was good thinking, Henry!
I hate having tripe for dinner.
I don't want to risk them knowing about it.
We must prevent him (from) seeing her.
11.3.2 If you need a verb after a preposition, you must always use the gerund.
He came in without ringing the bell.
Instead of writing, why not phone him up?
I'll never succeed in learning all this!
Nothing will stop me from becoming Master of the Universe!
After listening to him I felt much better about it.
(This last example shows you that the gerund can have a past sense too; the form "... having
listened ..." would also be possible, but it is rather heavier.)
Don't forget that if "to" is used as a preposition, then it will be followed by a gerund, as it is
for example with expressions like "to be used to something," "to look forward to something,"
"to object to something" and "to take to something."
He is used to doing exactly what he wants.
I'm looking forward to seeing her again.
I object to doing the washing-up without any help.
Louise took to skiing remarkably easily.
11.3.3 The following verbs are followed by a gerund. Note that they are transitive verbs, so
their normal complement is a noun, and thus it is quite logical for us to put a gerund after
them, as the gerund is the verbal noun.
to finish - to admit - to deny - to avoid - to postpone - to put off - to suggest - to fancy to enjoy - to resent - to miss - to resist - to risk - to mean, (meaning "to necessitate") to mind
I'll come when I've finished eating my pudding.
He categorically denied taking part in the demonstration.
In fact they had suggested not waiting for you!
How can we avoid telling them the awful truth?
I fancy going to see a good thriller.
That means inviting all of them!
I don't mind staying in on my own.
(See also 11.3.6 for the uses of "to mind.")
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11.3.4 Some verbs can be followed by either a gerund or a complete infinitive, without it
making any difference to the sense.
to begin - to start - to continue - to intend - to neglect - to prefer - to propose - to cease
- to dislike - to hate - to bear - to stand
She started crying as soon as he went out of the room.
(She started to cry...)
Don't neglect learning your German vocabulary this week.
(Don't neglect to learn...)
I prefer drinking Port with my cheese.
(I prefer to drink...)
I can't bear seeing you cry like that.
(I can't bear to see...)
"To like," "to love," "to hate" and "to prefer" practically belong in this group too, except that
you must put an infinitive after them when they are used in the conditional forms.
I would like to see them on stage instead of just on TV.
They'd have loved to hear you play the piano.
Note also the following case; "to like" really means "to want" here, and an infinitive is
necessary after it.
I didn't like to go into his room, because he wasn't there.
11.3.5 Some other verbs can also be followed either by a gerund or a complete infinitive, but
this time it does make a difference to the sense. For example, you must be very careful with
the verbs "to remember," "to forget" and "to regret." When they are followed by a gerund, it
means that the action of the gerund has already happened.
I remember telling you that last year.
I shall never forget meeting you, Penelope.
I don't regret doing that at all.
Otherwise, these three verbs will be followed by a complete infinitive.
Try to remember to post that letter!
Don't forget to give them my love.
I regret to say that I am leaving tomorrow.
Look at the following sentences containing the verb "to stop." You will see that the choice
between infinitive and gerund depends on the sense given to it.
He has stopped smoking now.
How can we stop Penelope knowing about it?
They were thirsty, so they stopped to have a drink.
"To try" is a special case; it can practically always be followed by a complete infinitive, but
when the idea is rather that of "trying a new way of doing something," or "trying a new
experience (to see if you like it,)" then we put a gerund after it.
Try giving them a pear with that soft cheese - it's delicious!
He tried playing tennis, but he had problems with his elbow.
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11.3.6 Quite a large number of idiomatic expressions require the use of the gerund; here is
a list of a few of them.
It's no good telling him, he'll only forget it anyway.
(It's no use telling him...)
It's not worth listening to them, they're talking rubbish!
There's no knowing what she'll do next.
I can't help thinking that you're right.
The petrol tank needs filling.
Your shoes want cleaning!
I feel like going out for a meal tonight.
She just can't stand being criticised.
I couldn't bear having my hair cut when I was little.
We had a lot of trouble convincing them that we were right.
(We had a lot of difficulty convincing...)
Keep smiling!
The verb "to mind," which is mentioned in 11.3.3, is frequently used when we ask someone
if he will agree to do something, or in answering a request for help of some sort.
Would you mind giving me a hand?
I don't mind doing extra work if it's necessary.
11.3.7 It is probably useful at this point to recall one or two ideas about the present
participle. Its basic uses are in the progressive verb forms, and as an adjective.
I'm trying very hard to be clear in my explanations!
We saw a really amusing old film last night.
It is often seen after "to see," "to hear" and "to feel," (but see also 11.1.7.)
I can hear David's car coming up the drive now.
Other verbs of perception will normally be followed by a present participle, as in the
following examples.
Did you notice that strange man looking at us?
I caught sight of her running quickly out the back door.
David overheard them talking about their holiday plans.
We often see it after the verbs "to go" and "to come."
I don't go skiing very often.
Will you come dancing with me on Saturday?
Various other expressions require a present participle too; here are a few of them.
They were busy preparing the meal for the others.
She spent an hour and a half putting her make-up on!
Why do you always keep me waiting for your answer?
He caught us smoking behind the gym during break.
11.3.8 When its subject is not the same as that of the main verb, the "ing" form can be
preceded by a noun, a pronoun or a possessive form. (Note that the possessive forms can
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only be used when it really is a gerund and not a present participle, and in any case it's
probably more normal to use a noun or a pronoun here.)
I object to you leaving your bike in the corridor.
Can't you remember Henry telling us that story?
I really enjoyed David's singing on the radio last night.
She hates us laughing at her.
I can't understand you wanting to see a film like that.
11.3.9 Don't forget that the negation of any infinitive, gerund or present participle is simply
expressed by putting "not" in front of it.
I'd rather not think how long it's going to take us.
Why not come over for coffee one of these days?
She preferred not to answer my question.
She taught me not to be worried about things like that.
It's no good not answering, he'll just call back later.
I don't mind not having a colour television.
11.4. CONSTRUCTIONS USED WITH THE "ING" FORM.
11.4.1 The "ing" form can be introduced by the preposition "on," when it indicates that one
action immediately follows another, or is a reaction to it.
On opening the door he saw her sitting in her armchair.
He turned deadly pale on seeing the hangman walk in.
11.4.2 Introduced by "when," the "ing" form simply shows that two actions are
simultaneous; this construction is most often used with habitual or repeated actions.
She always sings when having a bath.
When skiing you are well-advised to keep your eyes open!
A subordinate clause introduced by "when" could of course also be used.
11.4.3 "While" plus "ing" gives the idea of one or both of the simultaneous actions lasting for
a certain time.
He always reads the newspaper while having breakfast.
He broke his leg while trying to ski backwards.
A subordinate clause introduced by "while" would express the same idea.
11.4.4 The "ing" form introduced by "by" tells us the means used to do something.
He succeeded by making them all sorts of promises.
They learned how to swim by watching their father.
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11.4.5 "In" plus the "ing" form is generally used when what you do has an unintended
consequence.
In saying that you are just contradicting yourself.
In trying to make things clearer he managed to confuse us all.
11.4.6 Don't forget that we often find the "ing" form on its own, to express an action that
happens at the same time as another.
"I know him well," she said, smiling shyly.
He laughed in my face, hoping to provoke me.
11.4.7 Note also that the "ing" form is very often used in conjunction with verbs of motion.
She ran out crying, and I walked away, laughing to myself.
They walked in eating ice-creams, and were immediately shouted at.
A French gerund that expresses a movement often simply has a verb of motion as its English
equivalent.
They ran in, without even knocking on the door.
He limped off the pitch at the end of the match.
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