CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter discusses some theories dealing with the topic of the study. It
consists of teaching speaking, instructional media, the objective of teaching
speaking using a series picture, the technique of teaching speaking using a series
picture, and the criteria of teaching speaking using a series picture.
A. Teaching Speaking
1. Teaching
Talking about teaching, Kasbolah states that teaching is showing or
helping someone how to do something, giving instruction, guiding in the
study of something, providing with knowledge, causing to know or
understand.1
The description above implies that teaching is giving instruction
about the knowledge from a person in order to understand it. Based on the
statement above, the writer concludes that teaching is a process of
transformation of knowledge from teacher to learners, and the teacher’s
role is to facilitate the learners to learn until they can receive and absorb
the material perfectly. Doff said that teaching is a three-way relationship
1
Kasihani Kasbolah, Teaching Learning Strategy I. (Malang: IKIP Malang, 1993), p. 9
11
12
between the teacher, the materials he or she is used (e.g. the textbook),
and the students.2
From the statement above, teaching is the teacher’s effort to create
situation of teaching behavior in such away that there is interaction
between learners and environment which includes: teacher, teaching aids,
the condition of the classroom etc. the teachers can prepare the material
and performance before starting to teach.
By planning the teaching program carefully, the teacher can
manage the class and the students feel interested in receiving the material
during the teaching learning process. Effective teachers always prepare
their lesson well in advanced of their instruction. They realize that there
are many things to handle during the process of teaching in the classroom.
They have to manage the class, present the materials in a certain amount
of time, organize the students in a certain activity, administer test, etc. For
these activities, lesson preparation is something that has to be done
beforehand. A good lesson preparation will help the teachers in many
things. Jarolimek and Foster mentioned the important components of daily
lesson plan: purpose or objective, learning resources, sequence of lesson,
and summary and evaluation.
2
Adrian Doff, Teach English ….., p. 138
13
2. Speaking
We have known that the purpose of learning a foreign language is
to master language skills and language components. By practicing
speaking, the students directly will be able to practice other skills.
Speaking refers to the ability to utter a sound of sentences, to
express idea or feeling. This explanation is also supported by Chaney who
states that speaking is the process of building and sharing meaning through
the use of verbal and non-verbal symbols, in a variety of contexts.3
According to Harris speaking is a complex skill requiring the simultaneous
use of a number of different abilities, which often develop at different
rates.4
Based on the explanation above, the writer concludes that speaking
needs practices because speaking is not only meant to speak fluently but
also to learn to apply vocabulary and grammatical rules. So to achieve a
good result of speaking ability, the students need a lot of practices and
exercises. To achieve ability in speaking the students should do exercise
which are collaborated with the comprehension. So, speaking ability can
be described as the student’s ability to communicate in the target language.
3
Chaney, “Teaching Speaking: Activities to Promote Speaking in a Second Language”
dalam http://www.jalt-publications.org/tlt/files/97/jan/speaking.html, diakses 13 April 2010
4
David P Harris, Testing English as A Second Language. (New Delhi: Offset Press,
1969), p. 81
14
In speaking, students usually reflect the language they use at home
in social life. It can be seen when they speak by using different intonation,
vocabulary and structure. To make communicative communication, the
students must pay attention on the characteristic of communicative
competence. Richard and Plat Weber as reported in Nunan explain that
communicative competence includes: 1) knowledge of the grammar and
vocabulary of the language, 2) knowledge of roles of speaking (e.g.
knowing how to begin and end conversation, knowing what topics can be
talked about indifferent types of speech events, knowing which address
form should be use with different person one speaks to and indifferent
situation), 3) knowing how to use request apologies, thanks, invitation, 4)
knowing how to use language appropriately.5
3. Teaching speaking
Teaching is often considered as process of transferring or giving
knowledge to the students. Teaching can also be defined as sharing
information from teacher to the students. For instance, the student learns
what the teacher knows. The teacher also learns from the students. For
instance, the teacher learns about what students need and from this, the
teacher can choose the suitable materials, methods, approaches, etc.
5
David Nunan, Second Language Teaching and Learning. (Boston: Heinle and Heinle
Publisher, 1999), p. 226
15
Shrum and Glison as reported in Richard note that speaking in
early seventies usually meant “repeating after the teacher, reciting a
memorized dialogue, or responding to a mechanical drill.”6 But now it is
different. These language learners define fluency as the ability to converse
with others, much more than the ability to read, write, or comprehend oral
language. They regard speaking as the most important skill they can
acquire and they assess their progress in terms of their accomplishments in
spoken communication.
In the communicative model of language teaching, teachers help
their students develop this body of knowledge by providing authentic
practice that prepares students for real-life communication situations. They
help their students develop the ability to produce grammatical correct and
logically connected sentences that are appropriate to specific contexts.
Carrasquillo says that language proficiency is not a unidimensional
construct but a multifaceted modality, consisting of various levels of
abilities and domains. Hymes also assumes that L2 learners seed to know
not only the linguistic knowledge, but also the culturally acceptable ways
of interacting with other in different situations and relationships. His
theory of communicative competence consists of the interaction of
grammatical, psycholinguistic, and probabilistic language components.
Building on Hymes’s theory, Canale and Swain propose that
6
Jack C Richards, 30 Years …., p. 17
16
communicative competence includes grammatical competence, discourse
competence, sociolinguistic competence, and strategic competence, which
reflect the use of the linguistic system and the functional aspects of
communications respectively.7
a) Grammatical competence
Grammatical competence is an umbrella concept that includes
expertise in Grammatical (morphology syntax), vocabulary, and
mechanics which regards to speaking. The term mechanics refer to
basic sounds of letter and syllables, pronunciation of word, intonation,
stress. In order to convey meaning, learners must have knowledge of
word and sentences: that is they must understand how word are
segmented into various sounds, and how sentences are stressed in
particular ways. Thus, grammatical competence enables speaker to use
and
understand
English
language
structures
accurately
and
unhesitatingly which contributes to their fluency.
b) Discourse competence
In addition to grammatical competence, learners must develop
discourse competence which is concerned with intersentential
relationship. In discourse, whether formal or informal, the role of
cohesion
7
and
coherence
apply,
which
aid
in
holding
Jack C.Richards and Willy A.Renandya, Methodology in Language Teaching.
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), p.206
the
17
communications together in a meaningful way in communications,
both the production and comprehension of a language require one’s
ability to perceive and process stretches of discourse, and to formulate
representations of meaning from referents in both previous sentences
and following sentences.
c) Sociolinguistic competence
Knowledge of language alone does not adequately prepare
learners for effective and appropriately use of the target language.
Learners must have competence which involves knowing what is
expected socially and culturally by users of the target language: that is,
learners must acquire the rules and norms governing the appropriately
tuning
and
realization
of
speech
acts.
Understanding
the
sociolinguistics side of language helps learners know what comments
are appropriate, how to ask questions during interactions, and how to
response nonverbally according to the purpose of the talk. Therefore,
“adult second language learners must acquire stylistic adaptability n
order to be able to encode and decode the discourse around them
correctly.”
d) Strategic competence
Strategic competence is the way learners manipulate language
in order to make communicative goals is perhaps the most important
of all the communicative competence elements. In it simply definition,
18
it is the ability to compensate for imperfect knowledge of linguistic,
sociolinguistic, and discourse rules (Gerns, 1990). With reference to
speaking, strategic competence refers to ability to know when and how
to take the floor, how to keep conversation going, how to terminate the
conversation, and how to clear up communications breakdown as well
as comprehension problems.8
4. The Problems of Teaching Speaking
According to Marianne, there are some problems that make
misunderstanding in oral communication:9
a) The speaker does not have full command of the target linguistic
knowledge and produces an unacceptable or even unintelligible form
(it could be unacceptable or unintelligible in terms of phonology,
grammar, or lexical choice).
b) The necessary background knowledge (content, propositions) is not
shared by the speaker and the hearer, and they bring a different set of
expectations to the spoken interaction.
c) The speaker and the hearer do not share socio cultural rules of
appropriate, and therefore the speaker may have violated such a rule
from the hearer’s point of view due to pragmatic transfer from the first
language.
8
Ibid., p. 207-208
Marianne Celce-Murcia and Elite Olshtain, Discourse and Context in Language
Teaching. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), p. 165
9
19
There are some activities to solve the problems of teaching
speaking above. Speaking activities and speaking practice in the
classroom should enable students to gain experiences using all the
prerequisites for effective oral communication that have been mentioned.
The followings are some activities that can be used by a teacher in
teaching speaking:10
a) Role play
Role play is an excellent way to stimulate, in the classroom,
real communication that is relevant to experiences outside the
classroom. In role play students can have an opportunity to use their
knowledge of vocabulary, of narration, of speech acts, of discourse
fillers, of turn taking, of pauses, and so forth. However, role play can
be a very difficult or unnatural task if the students do not have
sufficient language for or information about the participants, the
situation, and the background for the simulated interaction. Care must
be taken that all these are available to students so that the activity can
be both meaningful and challenging.
b) Group discussions
Group discussions are an effective speaking activity in large
classrooms. Students in the second or foreign language classroom
should have ample opportunity to participate in group discussions,
10
Ibid., p. 177
20
doing brainstorming, and in many other speaking activities where they
need to participate by producing a word, a term, an expression, or a
clause and not necessarily maintain a long stretch of conversation. In
fact, a considerable amount of classroom time should be devoted to
such group activities in order to facilitate the spoken production of
individual students, thereby preparing them for more autonomous
speaking activities.
c) Using the target language outside the classroom
Using the target language outside the classroom can be a very
useful requirement in homework assignments in those cases where the
target language is spoken in the environment (second language
contexts). Students can be given tasks that require them to collect
meaningful information from stores, restaurants, museums, offices,
and other public establishments and then report back in class. Thus, we
have a multipurpose activity: natural interaction in the spoken
language serves as a speech initiator outside the classroom for data
collection, and then the student gives a report as a planned oral
presentation in class.
d) Using the learner’s input
Using the learner’s input to create meaningful speaking
activities helps make the activity relevant to the learner and authentic
in the real sense of the word. Making and choosing friends in a very
21
real concern for teenagers anywhere. An activity based on this topic
can start by some self-reporting on the characteristics that the
individual students look for in their friends and can then continue to a
pair discussion or a class discussion on the issue.
e) Feedback
Feedback as an integral part of spoken practice is particularly
important in order to encourage learners to develop a variety of
communication skills needed for successful oral communication. It is
important that teachers have ample opportunity to provide learners
with personal feedback on spoken performance that can point out not
only individual difficulties, but also strengths on which the learner
may capitalize such as a rich vocabulary, good stress and rhythm, or a
pleasant personality. Such feedback must be conveyed in a manner that
supports the learners rather than embarrasses them.
f) Simulations
Simulations are very similar to role-plays but what makes
simulations different than role plays is that they are more elaborate. In
simulations, students can bring items to the class to create a realistic
environment. For instance, if a student is acting as a singer, she brings
a microphone to sing and so on. Role plays and simulations have many
advantages. First, since they are entertaining, they motivate the
students. Second, they increase the self-confidence of hesitant students
22
because in role play and simulation activities, they will have a different
role and do not have to speak for themselves, which means they do not
have to take the same responsibility.
g) Information gaps
Information gap activity, two speakers have different parts of
information making up a whole. Because they have different
information, there is a gap between them. One popular information-gap
activity is called “describe and draw”. In this activity one student has a
picture which he or she must not show his partner (teachers sometimes
like to use surrealist paintings-empty doorways on beaches, trains
coming out of fireplaces etc). All the partner has to do is draw the
picture without looking at the original, so the one with the picture will
give instructions and descriptions, and the “artist” will ask questions.11
B. Instructional Media
Media play a very important role in the teaching and learning process,
including foreign language learning. As reported by Heinich et all, he states
that in learning anything, including foreign language learning, media play a
very important role because they increase the effectiveness of learning by
helping the pupil to assimilate ideas in a more meaningful and interesting
11
Jeremy Harmer, How to Teach English: An Introduction to the Practice of English
Language Teaching. (Edinburgh: Edition Wesley Longman Limited, 1998), p. 88
23
manner. Through the appeal to eye and ear they provide for a systematic
improvement of knowledge and skills, as well as a favorable influence on
attitudes and appreciations.12
Teacher should find an effective technique to teach English speaking.
Media as teaching aids are needed to help the student’s understanding and to
increase the effectiveness in the communication between teacher and students
in the teaching and learning process. It is also used to stimulate the student’s
motivation and student’s interest to the lesson.
1. The definition of media
Media is any extension of man which allows him to effect other
people who are not in face to face with him. Media include letters,
television, film, telephone, and even the reads and rail ways as there are
extension by which man can communicate with another. It is also carrying
the messages to the students.13
According to Azhar Arsyad, media is human, material or event
which builds condition that makes students are able to get knowledge, skill
or attitude.14 Arief S Sadiman says that media is kinds of type which is
used to send idea so it can be received by the idea receiver.15
Heinich et. all., Instructional …, p.19
Vernon S Gerlach and Donald D Ely, Teaching and Media: A Systematic Approach.
(Newjersey: Prentice-hall inc, 1971), p. 42
14
Azhar Arsyad, Media Pembelajaran. (Jakarta: PT Raja Grafindo Persada, 1997), p. 3
15
Arief S Sadiman, Media Pendidikan: Pengertian, Pengembangan, dan
Pemanfaatannya. (Jakarta: CV Rajawali, 1986), p. 6
12
13
24
2. The roles of instructional media
According to Richard as reported in Kasbolah, instructional media
have several roles, three of them are:16
a) Attention role
The attention role of media is to attract the student’s attention,
to heighten the student’s curiosity and to deliver the information.
Media can make the information more attractive.
b) Communicational role
In communicational role, media can function to enhance
comprehension and to assist the learner in understanding message.
Instructional media can increase the communicative power of the
instruction by explaining the message contained in the instruction. In
other word the communicational role of media is a way of clarifying
the intended message by making explicit certain concepts in the lesson.
c) Retention role
The retention role of instructional media concerns retention of
information presented in the instruction. Retention media, although
saw and recorded by the learner during the lesson, have their effect
later on when the time comes to remember the information. Many
people believe that images are better retained in memory than words. It
should be noted that memory processes are complex, and images are
16
Kasihani Kasbolah, A Syllabus for …., p.26
25
not necessity the main determinant of retention. Instructional media are
used to assist learners in learning and remember the important
concepts of lesson.
From various roles of instructional media, it is really important
in the teaching learning process. English teachers need to use
instructional media in achieving the teaching objectives. However, the
use of instructional media need to be carefully mode and planned. The
teacher should follow some considerations in using instructional media
in their teaching activities.
Wright mentions the main consideration of instructional media,
as follows: the first consideration of instructional media is it is easy to
prepare. If it is difficult to prepare, the teacher should not o it. If it
takes a lot of time and the teacher can use it many times with different
classes, it is worth the effort. Second, it should be easy to organize in
the classroom. The teacher has to decide whether the effort of
organizing a complicated activity is worthwhile. He has to consider
that many activities require organizational time and energy. Third, it
should be interesting to the students and the teachers. If the teacher’s
activity does not make the students interested, then he will question
whether it is worth doing. Fourth consideration, it is meaningful and
authentic. The last consideration is the activities conducted with the
use of media provide a sufficient amount of language in order to justify
26
its conclusion in the language lesson. If it does not, the teacher should
not do it. In choosing and using kinds of media, a teacher should also
consider the importance of the media in attaining the objectives of the
work, the availability of the media as compared with other media, and
the effectiveness of the media as compared to the other media. It
means that in using the media, the teacher must be sure that the media
used are really important, good, and suitable for the class condition
and material given.17
After the teacher feels sure that the media have fulfilled the
requirements above, the teacher can use the media in class. However, it
is also important that the teacher knows that he or she can not use the
same media too often, because it makes the students feel bored. So, the
teacher has to have other kinds of media in teaching since the students
need to have variations in learning so that they feel interested and
motivated in learning the lesson. It does not matter for the teacher to
find and have other kinds of media. There are still many kinds of
media that can be used for teaching.
3. Kinds of instructional media
17
Andrew Wright, Pictures for Language Learning. (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1989)
27
The important of media can not be separated on teaching process
many kinds of media in teaching now. Generally there are three kinds of
media. These are visual media, audio media, and audio visual media.
To make understand what visual media, audio media and audio
visual media the writer would explain it.
a) Visual media
According to Nurwiyanti visual media is also called by printing
media. Visual media is all kinds of media that can be seen or touch by
the student. The main component for this media is verbal material text
and visual material. Arsyad says that these two main components of
technology are LKS students, verbal and improved visual material
related to visual perception, readers, information processing and
learning theories.18
The characteristics of visual media are:
1) Text is real in visual manner, in the other hand visual is exceeded
based on the room
2) Text and visual show are way communication and receptive
3) Text and visual is shown in statistically
4) In developing this media depend on the language principle an
visual perception
18
Nurwiyanti, The Effect of Using Color Pictures as Media of Teaching Vocabulary to
the Student’s Achievement of Fourth Year in SDN Ketanon 01 Tulungagung. (Tulungagung:
STAIN Tulungagung, 2008), p. 23-24
28
5) It is oriented to the students
6) The information can be rearranged by the user
Finocchiaro mentions some examples of the media for each
type. The visual media may include blackboard, textbook, real object,
picture file, chart, pocket chart, flashcard, word card, number card,
flannel or felt board, magnetic board, opaque projector, overhead
projector and transparency, filmstrip, and miscellaneous materials.19
b) Audio media
Audio media also called by listen media usually it is used to
listen and understand the passage. The characteristics for this media is
that is way communication for example radio, tape recorder etc.20
c) Audio visual media
Audio visual media is the function of two kinds of media, they
are audio media an visual media. The audio visual media need
mechanic electronic to show the message of audio visual message.
According to Arsyad, learning though audio visual has
characteristic using hardware during teaching and learning process.
The example for this media is television, VCD, and film.
There are some characteristics of audio visual media:
1) Linearity
19
20
42
Marry Finocchiaro, Teaching English …., p. 155-185
Kasihin Sunyoto, English for Young Learners. (Malang: Universitas Malang, 2004), p.
29
2) Show dynamic visual
3) Can be implemented by using ways which are stated before
4) Able to be physical represent of real or abstract ideas
5) It was improved based on behaviorism psychology and cognitive
principles
6) Teacher oriented through the low students interactive involve level
4. Teaching speaking using series picture
Series picture are defined as a series of pictures (6 to10), which are
placed on one chart.21 Teaching is all of the teacher’s activities in the
classroom such as to manage the class and observe the student’s activities
in the classroom.
From the statement above the writer concludes that teaching
speaking is a process to help students how to develop the student’s
speaking ability in the classroom activity by using series picture. It is a
strategy which is used in teaching-learning process that can stimulate the
students to use the language in oral communication. By showing the
pictures, the students will be more interested to get some information from
them. They will try to understand what the pictures tell about. In this case
the writer takes series picture because by observing a series of events on
the pictures, the students will be able to develop their ideas to improve
their ability in speaking.
21
Marry Finocchiaro, Teaching English …, p.196
30
5. The significance of teaching speaking using series picture
To make the students speak English well, it is necessary for the
teacher to stimulate them to pay attention to the teacher in the teaching
learning process. The purpose of this teaching is to make the students to
speak English effectively and to get information from the series picture.
To make it easy and clear, the teacher should give series picture to the
students by using a suitable and planned technique or strategy of teaching
which the teacher has trained before being implemented in the classroom
activity. In teaching speaking, the teacher is as a facilitator to teach the
material.
To support the teaching learning process in the classroom the
teacher should use the teaching aids which are appropriate with the kinds
of the materials. While Ur purposes that good materials should meet the
following things: they should be clear, attractive joy out and print in order
to be read easily, interesting visual materials, clear and plenty of authentic
language. One of them is teaching using series of picture. This teaching
aid is to be able to motivate the students so they will be easy to understand
and to memorize the materials which are presented. The use of series
picture in teaching learning process of speaking has significance to
motivate the student to speak English and help the teacher get the aim of
speaking English effectively.
31
C. The Objective of Teaching Speaking using Series Picture
The objective of teaching speaking using series picture is the students
can speak English well, it is necessary to teach speaking to the students.
According to the general instruction, the objective of teaching speaking using
series picture is to make the students participate to practice the provided
material actively and lively. They are active in talking and the teacher is
monitoring the student’s activity. According to Adrian Doff, teaching is a
three-way relationship between the teachers, the materials he or she is using
(e.g. the textbook), and the students.22
It means that teaching is teacher’s effort to make the class alive and
active in too many teachers can create situation or teaching behavior in such
away that there is interaction between learner and environment including
teacher, class situation, and teaching aids to get the student achieves the
determined goal. By showing the series of pictures the students not only create
the idea to speak English but also they provide the information to use in
speech including object, action, events and relationship. Nunan states that
when we speak to people we not only say something but also do such thing as
describing event, feeling, thing, idea, plans, and a compliment. For example,
we make request, offer, suggestion, and so on. Those are for learning foreign
language.23
22
23
Adrian Doff, Teach English ….., p.138
David Nunan, Second Language …., p.225
32
D. The Technique of Teaching Speaking using Series Picture
Technique is a way to present a material to the students. It is a strategy
which is designed to help the teachers transfer their knowledge to the students,
Adrian Doff states that teaching techniques is the same activity can be done in
many different ways.24 The success of an activity depends partly on the
teaching techniques we use. It is particular trick, strategy, or contrivance used
to accomplish immediate objective. There are many kinds of techniques in
teaching speaking using series picture. According to Ur in Diani’s book
Teaching English to Young Learner suggest three important source of interest
for children in the classroom: pictures, stories, and games. Pictures are
obviously mainly a visual stimulus. Series pictures can be as the guide of the
meaning of the picture tells us about. The teacher can get the pictures such as
from magazine, newspaper, etc. in this research, the writer chooses series
picture because the students will be easy to understand the meaning of words.
Teaching speaking using series picture is effective because it is visible,
interesting and it can make an impression in the classroom.
The important things why the teacher chooses teaching speaking using
series picture are:
24
Adrian Doff, Teach English …., p.138
33
1. The roles of series picture
The best way of getting a good series picture is about the
characteristic of the picture. How to introduce the series picture to the
students so the students can understand the pictures easily.
2. The strategy
Some series picture are implemented individually or in-group.
3. Playing series of picture
The best ways of using series of pictures is by giving chance to
express their idea or feeling. Hopefully, the students can explain their own
interpretation about people or events in the series picture.
E. The Criteria of Teaching Speaking using Series Picture
In making composition when we use series picture as media we should
know that the series picture have some criteria. The important thing for
English teacher to know that the media have some characteristics. Media are
all aids which may be used by the teachers and learners to attain certain
education objectives. There are many kinds of media which function to
facilitate the instruction. In this case Wright offers five basic considerations of
the media:25
25
Andrew Wright, Pictures for …., p.3-4
34
1. Is it easy for us to prepare?
If it is difficult to prepare then don’t do it. But if it takes a lot of
times and we can use the media many times with different classes, then it
is wroth it. Once we have built up a picture/object library, it is usually not
difficult to prepare many activities using these media.
2. Is it easy to organize in the classroom?
The teacher has to decide whether or not the effort to organizing a
complicated activity is worth-while. He or she must consider that many
activities do require organization time and energy. Do things to pass the
time pleasantly, as the children do. It is suitable for their age because the
children like playing and they are more active. They got bored easily so
playful materials will be interesting for them.
3. Is it interesting to the students? Is it interesting to the teacher?
The series picture must be interesting for them in order that the
students will be more alive and active in the classroom. In this case,
Finocchiaro states:
Teachers can use media to promote a friendly environment in the
classroom, create and organize materials, overcome shortcomings in
the textbooks, stimulate and maintain interest through varied
practice activities, and emphasize certain enjoyable aspects of
language learning while minimizing other feature.26
26
Marry Finocchiaro, Teaching English ……, p.136
35
If the series picture can make them interested, it can stimulate
them to create the idea and feeling to speak fluently, beside that they will
not feel bored during the teaching learning process.
4. Will the language and the way you want the students to use it be authentic
to the activity?
Students are going to gain more if the language they use is vital to
situation.