Fostering learning-to-learn skills in first year computer science students in
a Web-based environment
Catherine McLoughlin
Teaching and Learning Centre
The University of New England
David Miron and Mary O'Sullivan
School of Mathematical and Computer Sciences
The University of New England
In the design of online teaching environments for first year students, considerable
attention has been paid to the nature of the interface and to the streamlining of
activities for learner engagement. Much less attention has been given to the nature of
the support system that is provided for novice users learning online. Support systems
are essential for first year students to help them to engage in the processes of learning
and to develop the skills of learning-to-learn. It is also imperative that a range of
support systems be put in place to enable learners to become competent in learning
online, and to learn to interact in a virtual environment. Such skills are now
recognised as part of the lifelong learning competencies or generic attributes that
universities seek to develop in their graduates. In this paper we offer a theoretical and
pragmatic rationale for the development of support structures for online learning,
which comprises both resources that learners can access in order to achieve learning
outcomes and supports for communicative and cognitive processes. Examples of
support features are drawn from a first year computer science unit offered at the
University of New England.
Introduction
When first year students are introduced to online learning, they are faced with a new learning
environment and the expectation that they will have independent learning skills and the
capacity to engage in activities that require self-direction and self-management of learning.
While universities are now fostering lifelong learning skills and preparation for the
workplace, the cultivation of these skills is now core business at tertiary institutions across
Australia (Jarvis, 1999; Hager, 1999). The learning opportunities of Web-based instruction
are enormous. Students can select and employ resources, develop independent learning
strategies and assess their overall progress. Yet, how do students respond to such
environments? Are they capable of independent learning, developing metacognitive
awareness, and identifying their own learning needs and revising plans and actions?
In our experience, we have found that learners in their first year students commencing tertiary
study in computing science need learning-how-to-learn skills in order to become effective
on-line learners, and that these skills need to be explicitly supported and taught.
Context of the study
1
Our observations and recommendations on supporting first year students are made within the
context of first year units in Computer Science, offered at the University of New England.
Two unique features of course delivery are that units are taught to external and internal
students simultaneously, using the same learning materials, and making extensive use of
Internet technology for delivery of course content, student assessment, teacher feedback and
inter-group communication. All students who enrol in the unit Computer Science I are part
of an ‘extended classroom’ where they collaborate with, and engage in dialogue with other
students on and off campus. We make extensive use of the Web through an online syllabus,
which is a series of Web pages that offer:
-
essential course information
online assessment tasks
links to other sites and resources;
communication with other students via bulletin boards.
In addition, the units require students to complete practical tasks, hands-on laboratory
sessions and tutorials. Essentially, the course is designed for independent learning, but with
sufficient support to enable students to develop cognitive and communicative skills, a
well-structured knowledge base, and a network of other learners. These design features have
been informed by the extensive research conducted on the first year experience by a number
of researchers (McInnis, 1998; McInnis & James, 1995; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991). In
particular the unit was designed to develop independent learning skills, but with embedded
support for a number of critical dimensions such as the development of social networks and
peer interaction, generic communication skills and information literacy.
Learning to learn on-line: What are the component skills?
For the first year students embarking on the unit Computer Science I becoming an online
learner is a primary skill. Effective computer-mediated learning requires a number of skills
and cognitive abilities that are not merely intuitive, nor can they be assumed in novice
university students or those unfamiliar with learning online. These skills are drawn from an
extensive range of literature on learning, psychology and educational theory (Scardamalia &
Bereiter, 1994; Grabinger & Dunlap, 1994; Vygotsky, 1978; Shuell, 1992; Vermunt &
Verloop, 1999). Basic skills include the technical procedures for accessing the website,
organising and managing online information, participating in parallel discussions, staying
focused and learning to express oneself through text. In addition, higher cognitive skills
include:
1. Articulation: Being an aware learner; being aware of one’s own thinking and having the
skills to communicate about needs, learning difficulties and personal learning goals.
2. Self-regulation: Being able to plan one’s own study and adjust one’s strategies in order to
achieve a goal or complete a task.
3. A repertoire of learning strategies: Being able to plan and implement a flexible range of
learning strategies online, and demonstrate information literacy (navigate in the online
environment, browse, analyse and read critically, and metaskills such as attention to task,
concentration and self-motivation).
4. Self-assessment/self-evaluation: Being able to anticipate problems and areas in need of
improvement, have the capacity to seek help when needed.
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To illustrate how each of these component skills are essential for study in an on-line
environment, we provide examples of each showing strong and weak dimensions in student
performance (Table 1). The skills are those which we have observed to be essential for
students in their first year.
Table 1: Strong and weak demonstrations of learning-to-learn in an online
environment
Skills for online learning
Strong demonstration
Weak demonstration
Articulation

Ability to ask questions in online
forms

Ability to communicate via e-mail

Ability to engage in group
dialogue

Ability to provide feedback to
peers

Netiquete skills
Able to articulate views
andmisconceptions and reflect/identify
areas in need of remediation
Does not think about the learning
process, but simply follows
instructions
Able to collaborate and engage in
text-based communication
Does not participate in the group
process
Self-regulation

Able to study independently

Able to plan and set personal
goals for learning

Able to navigate and decide on a
learning

Able to initiate one's own learning
Able to plan and study independently
online
Lacks skill in planning and goal
setting
Able to formulate goals;
Needs constant direction and
support
A repertoire of learning strategies

Information literacy skills

Able to act on feedback

Able to utilise sources of peer
support

Able to set learning objectives
Able to choose and uses appropriate
learning strategies,
Is unaware of the range of possible
strategies that can be used;
Able to self-test and revise ideas
Expects to understand by simply
reading the material
Ability to manage information

Able to interpret a variety on
infor\mtation forms

Able to access multiple sources
of information

Able to search for and evaluate
information

Able to record notes and
bibliographic details
Capacity to fins, apply and evaluate
relevant information and data sources
Able to adjusts time to meet task
demands
Able to self monitor own understanding;
Confident and strategic in diverse
learning contexts
Able to cope with multiple ideas and
perspectives
Needs teacher guidance to improve
understanding
Experiences information overload;
Cannot self monitor understanding
effectively or plan learning
Able to build a personal knowledge
base
Able to form new and original
conceptions of knowledge
First year students in computer science are not expected to have highly developed skills in
these areas, so it is essential that these process skills are embedded into the units taught
online, and actively fostered throughout the semester.
A conceptual framework for learner support on-line
Assuming that novice users of the WWW do not have the component skills needed to execute
tasks and access learning resources independently, how do we support learners to develop
these essential skills? We suggest that supportive mechanisms are needed to provide
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advice, coaching and guidance to learners. Support provided needs to be well integrated with
content instruction and to be grounded in contemporary learning theory so that there is a
rationale applied to the design of such support.
Educational research in online environments has turned to socio-cultural theory to evaluate
and understand technology-supported learning environments (Vygotsky, 1978; McLoughlin,
1998; McLoughlin & Oliver, 1998). The theoretical perspective is that learning involves
social interaction and dialogue, negotiation and collaboration and that ‘scaffolded’ or assisted
learning can increase cognitive growth and understanding. What is scaffolding?
Scaffolding is a form of assistance provided to a learner by a more capable teacher or peer
that helps the learners perform a task that would normally not be possible to accomplish by
working independently. Integrated into pedagogical practice, scaffolding is intended to
motivate the learner, reduce task complexity, provide structure and reduce learner frustration.
Three forms of scaffolding are recognised to be effective in fostering learning in online
environments (Sherry & Wilson, 1997; Bonk & Sugar, 1998). Scaffolding can be provided
by peers, through electronic support systems and by an on-line tutor. Electronic scaffolding
might be a progressive self-test, hints about solving a problem or completing a task, examples
of completed work or guided tasks that lead the learner towards more complex, extended,
independent performance. Peer scaffolding occurs when learners co-construct ideas, share,
review and reconstruct concepts in the light of feedback received or given. The most
important point about scaffolding is that it engages the learner actively at his/her current level
of understanding until the stage where the support is no longer required and the learner
becomes autonomous. In the present study we describe a context where first year computer
science students are supported in learning to learn online.
Design principles to support component skills of learning to learn
At the University of New England, the first year unit Comp 131: Introduction to Computer
Science I consists of 100 internal students and 200 external students. The first year students
undertaking this unit are usually novices to online learning. According to research on the
first year experience (McInnis & James, 1995), a number of factors converge to make the
transition to tertiary study a fulfilling or alienating experience:
For teaching and learning, the factors influencing effectiveness include the quality of the
face-to-face interaction between teachers and learners, the clarity of teaching goals, the
availability of staff, staff-student interaction outside the classroom, student- student interaction,
assessment practices, the level of difficulty, the match to previous learning, and feedback on
progress.
By combining previous research on first year experience with existing research on learning-to
learn, Introduction to Computer Science 1 aimed to ease the transition for students. Each of
the learning skills in Table 1 was supported by designing tasks, monitoring learners,
providing appropriate forms of structured learning and reducing task complexity in the
learning environment.
Support for articulation and goal setting
Students entering the unit are asked about their motivation for learning and also asked to
comment on the unit objectives, thus giving them an opportunity to negotiate and comment on
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the objectives, and link them to their previous experiences. This enables the lecturer to offer
support and assistance to students from the outset of the unit.
Fostering self-regulation through task design
In designing environments for learners entering university, tasks must be planned for
engagement, relevance and constructive learning. A major goal of constructivism is to
emphasise the unique interests, styles and motivations and capabilities of individuals so that
the learning environment can be tailored to them. Jonassen et al (1993) state that learners
should be:
•
•
•
•
•
able to negotiate and formulate their own goals;
given multiple perspectives on knowledge;
provided with relevant and real life learning tasks;
given support and models for new skill development;
encouraged to collaborate and share knowledge through interaction.
In Computer Science I, learning tasks are varied and cover a range of skills and competencies
that can be applied to problem solving tasks so that students can build on them.
Support for development of independent study strategies
Pretertiary students need to develop independent study habits and to develop
self-responsibility. This is achieved by providing learners with an introduction to learning
online, examples of study timetables and guidance in creating their own plan and study goals.
This is achieved in the first year computing science units by using online tools such as a
calendar of events where students can plan their own study time table online. Learning
support for tasks is provided by posting procedural prompts to the unit bulletin board. Overall,
the communicative and social usage of the bulletin board is perhaps the most fundamental tool
in achieving these objectives. Independent learning often accompanied by peer support and
feedback is accomplished by organising assignments around the bulletin board. The first
assignment for example is totally based on fostering social communication and interaction
among students and involves students posting descriptions of themselves and what they hope to
achieve in the unit. This is followed by an open-ended question which is to be discussed by
the students.
This approach enables students to articulate personal details about themselves and gives them
the opportunity to share information. The discussion topic then aims to stimulate interaction
thus developing a virtual community enabling peer support. By constructing the first
assignment of the first year unit Comp 131: Introduction to Computer Science 1 in such a way,
students begin to see that they have a personal stake in the unit. The discussion and the
interaction on the bulletin board are essentially open with a little moderating by the teacher in
order to reinforce student’s postings and further stimulate the discussion.
Provide for learner control and autonomy
Students need to feel empowered by the technology, not overwhelmed by it. Tools for
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empowerment in the online environments are the navigation tools, the content provided and the
form of learning activities and assessment. The navigation tools allow for exploration and
multiple paths through the website, but also provide sufficient structure to those learners who
need support. The design is therefore a delicate balance between support and autonomy.
Prompt feedback on progress is given using online quizzes and the bulletin board. The
bulletin board gives the students the opportunity to post questions and to have them answered
promptly by peers. The teacher can also answer these questions if necessary. Through the
bulletin board student difficulties can become evident quickly enabling the teacher to take
prompt action by providing supplementary materials.
Provide prompt relevant feedback
In order for learners to develop new skills they need to be supported and challenged by
regular, prompt and constructive feedback. In an online environment for first year learners
this is provided through e-mail, bulletin boards and other forms of text-based messaging
systems. Students can ask for individual help and tutors are available both online and via
telephone to offer individualised support and guidance. Regular quizzes and self-tests allow
students to check their own progress and predict where they are experiencing difficulties.
Summary of design features to support the transition to first year Computer Science
The following is a summary of strengths that can be attributed to the online unit offered to
first year computer science students:
-
expectations regarding assignments and assessment are made very clear;
the reasons for the course expectations are very clear and are related to real world
contexts;
student workload is explicit and manageable due mainly to consolidated, integrated
work requirements and limited number of assessment tasks;
students have the opportunity to adapt the course requirements to their interests and
experience and can succeed;
staff workload is manageable due mainly to the limited number of assessment
tasks;
there is an interesting range of well-framed learning activities that accommodate a
variety of learning styles;
students are encouraged to accept responsibility for their own learning;
students and staff give and receive feedback on a continuous basis;
learning tasks involve students in evaluating and improving their own work,
assessment is directly related to the intended learning outcomes;
generic skills are accorded a high priority in the learning process.
By recognising that first year students need support at multiple levels, the technology has
been used not only as a tool to deliver content, but also to support students in learning from
each other, but also to assist them in developing social networks and accessing various
forms of peer feedback and collaboration through the unit website and bulletin boards. Figure
1 summarises the different forms of support offered in the computing science units.
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Figure 1: Multiple forms of learning support offered to first year computer science
students
Continued monitoring of student learning, elicitation of regular feedback and evaluation of
student progress in the various learning tasks are some of the procedures currently in place to
ensure that the unit is constantly reviewed and updated.
Conclusion: Support for learning as an essential design feature in online environments
The design features of the environment are based on social-constructivist pedagogies and
address the learning needs and future orientation of computer science students. Assisting
students to plan and manage their time are still major concerns, and for the online tutors these
aspects of the course require instructor monitoring and observation. Stimulating and
motivating students to take responsibility for their own learning remains the biggest
challenge. The design, development and implementation of networked learning
environments need to be grounded in learning theory which recognises the central role of
support processes that enable students to learn how-to-learn online.
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