Bio 240 Vertebrate Biology
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Bio 240 Vertebrate Biology Who are Vertebrates Hagfish- sometimes vertebrate, sometimes not related to lamprays new ecosystem-dying whale carcus one of the residence tie themselves in a knot to rid themselves of excessive slime Lampray- vertebrates paracidic on fish Placoderm- really primitive fish dermal bone-bone in its skin extenct Gigamouth Shark- cartogenic (Chorindricthyes) bodencollege.com Fish huge diversity Amphibians dinosaurs birds passenger pigeons common, now extenict Mammals lemar All vertebrates are parallel and evolved Vert Bio shows interrelationship between form and function through dissection you can see function flight of bird and muchles form and function are linked at all levels of biology Comparative anatomy Development what is the mechanism for giving differences Peadomorphosis- part of the animal that stays “childlike” or larval while the rest of the body devlopes into adult forms this is what separates species in the same family Peramorphosis- moving beyond the shape Evolution of Bodies Homology modifications that relate animals, such as the common bones in the arm and forelimb in vertebrates similarity of developement Systematic/Phylogeny Systematics classification of animals which requires knowledge of a group of animals a matrix is created that shows common characteristics and evolutionary steps and ancestor history the tree with the least steps is the best (number of common traits) less of a stretch to show evolution Monophyly- all animals are related through a common ancestor paraphyly- all animals are related through several ansestors Earth History and Vertebrates Evolution 1/23/07 News Four winged dinosaur found called the Microraptor gui hid legs were feathered 150 million years ago AJC 1/23/07 Animals related to verts Ways to define synapomorphys derived characters make a taxonomic scheme for interrelational patterns History oldest life was bacteria during the Cambrian period 550 million years ago Paleozoip- fish Mesozoic- Dinosuars Censoinc- Mammals Continents Pangea Gondwana and Laurasia Eurasi, N American, S America, Africa, Australia, India Eurasia + India, N America, S America, Africa, Australia Vertabrate Vertabrates are part of the cordates not exactly the same Deuterostomata specific devlopement first opening becomes anus second invagination becomes mouth Protstoms embryo forms gastrostom first opening becomes mouth Dueterostomata Pharyngotremata organisms that have a throat or neck Hemichordata Therobranchs food is fed into mouth with proboscis U shaped guts pharyngeal slits related to vertebrates Acorn worms proboscis collar trunk marine tube worm with circular and longitudinal muscles nerve cord and cells that are similar to notochord body cavities for digestion and resipiration where water filters through Chordata Somitichodata when nerve tube closes there are pockets of cells which form characteristic functions later on in development pockes of cells called somites Echinodermata sea cucumbers and starfish Development of Dueterostom Radial cleavage much more varied indeterment blastopore with anus, second invagination becomes the mouth Development of Protosome Spiral Cleavage the cells early on are differentiated determinate insects and crustations invagination called the blastpore Archenteron Segmental body cavities Larva Chordatas Tunicates soft body and ceccial (settled on the gground) filter feeders mobility only in larval stage hermapherdidic ganglion, sometimes called a brain endostyle- releases mucus and has cells that pull in iodine from the enviroment like the thyroid have a heart and blood vessels larval postnatal tail characteristic of chordates Amphioxus filter feeders that can move postnatal tail and uncentered (opens on the left) has the five chordate characters notochord pharynx pouch or slits endostyle doral nerve cord post anal tail complicated nerves system Pigment spot (like an eye) sensitive to light from above, and protected from below considered an invertebrate separate sexes Sharks Notocord segmentally flanked by bone Cranium Boney incasing of brain Digestive system shows specialization and accessory organs Coelom Dorsal Nerve Chord sepelization development of a three part brain Forebrain olifactory Mid Brian eyes and ears Hindbrain 1/25/07 Craniates 14 major living clades Vertebrata Myxinofromes means slimey form ray fin fishes closest to the common ancestor 45 speices, all marine brain case gills cerial hermaphroditic hagfish jawless kertin like teeth notochord Lamprays(Pteromyzonitiform) 49 speices metamophesis scavengers predator parasites Jawless used strong muscles and gill pouches Petromyzonimformes evolutions of jaws gnathostomata-means jaws osteichthyes- means bones (like boney fish) Chondrichthyes Placoderms related to sharks cartolagoinous fishes all extinct head armor with jaw and joint in skull Acanthodii it had armor all over its body with spine Chimaera are separate from the other because upper jaw Actinopterygii ray fin supports without flesh, more skeletally based dorsal and ventral usually the same size Sarcopterygii lobed finned fishes Latimeria fossils found discovered as living in the fourties Vert Bio 1/30/07 Sarcopterygii (fleshy fin) Actinista (Coelocanth) lobe fins skulling fin movements, hovering movements Porolepiformes extinct lateral fins that are paired pectoral and pelvic anal fins and dorsal fins Dipnoi means two breath lungfish can breath air and water lung is ventral outgrowth from digestive track migrate dorsally after development transitional between water and land fish that can walk on land on water bottom skinny appendages tetrapod gate one limb down while the other is up start to loss the medial fins as fish evolve to terapods Rhipidistians characterized by teeth laberist like enamel folds in a certain patern Choanata nostrils connect to oral cavity can’t chew very long many reptiles are choanatae precursor of life on land humerous is evident in choanata fish petoral gurdile is concave to receive the humerous Tetrapoda four feet lose their fish like characteristic medial fins sensory structures scales lateral line system New structures appears stronger gurdles for appendages apperence of digits vertebrae Earliest known tetrapod ichethodegy Anphibia smooth skin Neotetrapoda Lissamphibia Respiration occurs through skin glandular skin with no scales very sharp ribs Metamorphesis Freeze tolrent tympanum eardrum thus animals began to create sound because sensory reception of sound Necturus salamanders has external gills example of pediomorphesis retains larva like qualities digits on the fins ectothermic expend very little energy to conserve body heat Caecilians long earthworm like amphibians Amniota Reptilomorphs reptile like yoke sac ankle joint switches and legs move under body, unlike amphibians Chelydra alligator snapping turtle first known diapsid 2 arches synapsid 1 arch gave rise to mammals Squamata means scale special places called vertebral zones during attack they can detach tail can throw tail off and tail can freak out because spinal cord is still in tail and motor nerves go crazy to act as distraction Sphenodon only living diasid Snakes lost of characters of ancestor Archosauromorpha include dinosaurs crocodilian and allies are the only ones that survived most were very small force towards hindleg support raptor and t rex Theropods leads to evolution of birds (aves) T Rex hind leg support forelimbs for balance or track runner start evolve into birds have shriking forearms and same bone structre light bones while being storng Archaeopteryx feathered reptile Neornithes common birds Huge radiation and diversity migration vocalization color adaptation owls with silent feathers and 3d vision cuckoo who lay eggs 020107 Cladograms of Verts focus on nested sets of 3.20 Reptilomorph having laberintadon teeth, enamel pattern Amniota Sauropsides include extent animals and turtles Testudines turtles Diapsida Sauria Lepidosaurs the living descedents Squamata have scales on their skin Tuatara found only of islands and don’t have keratin scales direct from the common anscestor Archosaurs many exstinct except crocodiles Theropod characterized by carnivierious bipeds give rise to the birds Aves means bird Ratites ostriches and allies Neorthines modern birds lots of diversity Passeriformes perching birds 9000 speices of modern birds huge radiation in the cenozod period Synapsids single opening in the skull, related to the jar small and non diverse in cenozod period very spereate from other amniota had sharp teeth and specialization of vertebrae development of a secondary palate you can eat and breath at the same time warm blooded dinosaurs bones leave the jaw region to form ear ossicles (middle ear) Mammalia (mammary glands) hair and fat mammary glands marsupials live born internal gestation monotrems lay eggs Eutheria Placental mammals Primates Ungulata hooved animals know figure 3.1 and 3.20 Vert Bio 2/6/07 Development/Embryogenesis Epigenetics how embryos get differentiated layer of interactions with cells and tissues that gives them their fate Shape Changes Epithelial – mesenchymal transitions Active folding or migration cell growth and division cell fusion cytoplasms fuse, multinucleate establishment of special connections Specialized cellular functions or products Cell Death nervous system Inductive relationships Epithelia/Mesenchyme Epithelial has basal lamina and apical surface has junctions between them Mesenchymal weirdly shaped moving in the estracellular space bond with cell adhesion molecules moveable cellular layer transitions to epithelial (the skin) Cleavage -> Blastula Animal Pole Vegetal Pole has more yoke Fate mapping Model Systems Ectoderm (blue) Neural tube epidermis Nueral Crest Nuerogenic placodes somatic ectoderm Mesoderm (green pink) somites Nephrotome kidney Chordamesoderm Paraxial mesoderm (somites) Intermediare mesoderm (nephrotome) Lateral mesoderm (lateral plate) Endoderm (yellow) lining of digestive system estraembryonic endoderm nutriction for embryo Archenteron Gastrulation blastula starts to invaginate Neurulation Eye formation Induction differentiation of one cell causes the differentiation of another cell cells lining nervous system have cilla to move spinal fluid three layers nueral layer photoreceptive cells pigment cell layer considered to be part of the central nervous system induction cascade Neural Crest fate maps Vert Bio 02/08/07 Ectoderm mouth and anus lining nureal crest amibod craniate feature neurogenic placodes structures that are important for sensory systems placode- thicking of an epititethial cells, no extracellular space focus of placodes in the head migration occurs to create lateral lines Mesoderm vertbraes muscle Head Organization well developed eye pharyngeial arches mandibular arch Hyoid arch gill structures Pharynx branchiomeres tube (of arch) that have muscles, skeletal rod, aortic arch, and cranial nerve seven archs in craniate body plan Segmentation Hox colinearity evoluved from long ago but are very conserved pattern of structures that have segmentation which is controlled by the Hox genes through duplicatons and deletions hox genes create segmentation that leads to evoution Chapter 5 reading 184-192 Connective Tissue four types of tissue nerve muscle epithelial connective characterized by extracellular space Loose watery thin sheath extracellular space filled with fibers, not firm collegen is the primar fiber fibroblast- cells that make the fiber cells that have left the circulatory system, called macrophages, that degrade stuff to protect tissues of the body, used to be white blood cells jelly like texture from proteins and protyogliacans, central hyaluronic acids molecues. The matrix holds on to the water loose because there is so much extracellular space Dense less empty space filled with collogen fibers and fibroblast no white blood cells dermis regular parallel collegen fibers in sheets found in ligaments Tendons have regular bundle arrangement irregular fibers are not parallel, densely packed, found in dermis Special Tissues cartilage, bone, blood, adipose Cartilage firmer overlain by dense connective tissue cells underneither translform to become a chondronblast and become entombed that becomes a dense matrix that allows fluids to transfer through there are no arteries in the cartalage simple diffusion and low metabolic rate Hyaline cartilage found wrapping the end of the joints clear like glass empty spaces called Lacuna and cells stay there and get nutrients there cartolige cell is called a condrocyte skeleton is first built as a cartolige model Bone bone is full of blood vessels and bones marrow produces blood cells bones cells are spider shaped holes in the bones called canolicula where nutrients travels from cells to bone prepared for section by taking a bone and cut it with a saw and grind it so that its so thin you can see through it the empty spaces is where the cells were located Osetoclast release the calcium to the rest of the body osteoblast create new bone to contract the osetoclast Bone Development bone originally evolved from the dermis bone developes in two places dermis (membrane bone) laying down a matrix usually near a blood vessel, blood formation can take place cartilage (replacement bone) mesencymal structre that gets invaded by cells which turns it to cartilage and then the carotage cells invade the cells to create epiphysis which form bone around surface and beam filled marrow and growth zones based on cartoliage storng joints and shafts are tehm while you are growing until cartilage is ossified Ch 6 Integument the skins functions protection from abrastion sensory receptors used in animal behavior displays pecock feathers shown a lot of evolution from fish to mammals to amphibians to birds lots of diiffernt function endothermy Epidermis/ Dermis epidermis outside layer sits on the basal lamina constantly deviding cells die and wear off, usually because no blood vessels fish skin have single cells glands that create mucus, glandular glands make poison cells that make kertin are produces in epidermis near the base and kertin stays put forming the cells and the death cells are pushed up towards the surface neural creast leaves behind cromatofores bt dermis and epidermis and create pigment dermis dense irregular connective tissue with nerve and blood supply hairs and feathers will drive down into dermis Pigment cells when they are sitmulates the cells get spread out (chromatophores) when it is activated (spread out) it provides protection for the new cells being created underneither vertebrates are very colorful melanophores give pigment of all colors, pigment cells, color is actually there color spreads to protect underliying dermis Iridophores can create all colors photocolors are affected by light chromoatoohres neural crest in orgin Neural crest also causes the dermis or epidermis to be induced to form other structures papilla forms and enamel organ forms and induces dermis to form bone chemical pigments- cells full of color physical pigments- related to light and cell color change Fish skin/ chromatophores Fish scales Boney cosmoid plate- dermal sheet of armor which is made of bone and induced to form enamel structures dermal denticles- instead of a whole sheet it is a single spike fish went from one boney sheet to flexible armor with spikes Early ancestors of jawed fished had heavy bone with denten and overlapping scales layer of bone is much thinner two kinds of modern scales cycloid scales smoother overlap and flexable cternoid scale cteni- comb structures found in flonders where the eye balls are Frog skin top layer – stratum corneum dermis, musuc and grandular glands, thin epiteliam for moist enviorment frogs some have kertin claws Reptiles have plates instead of scales stradum cornuem is thick these animals molt becauswe heavy outer layer cells between outer epidermis and inner epidermis die and create a fission zone, outer then sheds off have claws which are made of the horny kertin material most colorful lizards can change color, but most colorful snakes can not Birds real skin is thin and not kernified because feathers are almost armor like have a gland at the base of their tail to keep feathers in healthy form horny scales on legs and feet Feathers feathers have a variety of fine shapes contour feather flight feathes down feather barbs and barbules hook and interlock to unify development of feather is simlar to reptile scales development feathers and scales are homologous 15% of your body weight is skin Integument, cont. Ch 6 2/20/07 Feathers skin makes papilla into the epidermis which later creates the feathers used originally for thermoregulation Mammalian Skin Human skin basal cells divide and push old celss up Glands Sebaceous glands secrete oil and create acne holicrine manner of seretion, whole cell swells with oil Apocrine Sweat gland make a more oily screte and has phermones makes the sweat smell develop with puberty Eccrine Sweat Glands ordinary swear glands not attached to hair follicles Nerves Dead scales kertin with phophoslipids Hair Follices animals with both hairs and scales, hairs develop between scales rats and armadillos hairs are purely epidermal Arrector pili muscles is attached to muscle creates hair to stand on end Skin layers-epodermis dermis Dermis dense irregular connective tissue Epidermis much thiner does’t have blood vessels Stratum corneum upper layer Thick/Thin skin Thin Skin thin strateum cornem hairs Thick skin huge layer of strateum cornem no hairs Mammary glands A longitudinal ridge developes in the fetus called the milk ridge cells rapidly divide and developes glands brest structure nipples is where several individual gladns open at the nipple the teat is where the milk forms, like in utter Evolution of Vert Skin dermal armor, then placiod scales, then complex dermal skeleton, then skin boney plates, placoderms which had cosmoid scales, Vertebrate Skeleton Ch 7 Dermal Skeleton Skull does not include mandibule encloses the brain case Pectoral Girdle Endochondral Skeleton model laid down in cartilage and later filled Somatic not visceral Axial Chondrocranium brain case Vertebrae, ribs Visceral jaws Gill Arches Cranial Skeleton Chondrocranium wraps brain and sensory structures olifactory and audit capsule (inner ear) developes as a troph trabeculae develop as a pair of cartilage rods premandibular arches second set artidulate with vertebral column come from the somites join and grow around the outside edge of the brain, creating a front and back wrap leaves space for eye Nerve Foramina openings in the skull where nerves enter the brain Rostrum protective snot protective role endocondral Splanchnocranium visceral skeleton pharynx, jaws, branchial arches Petromyzon lamprey form the initial arches of the gills active muscle contraction Jaw Articulation autostylic suspention orginal jaw attached to cranium self pillar, functions as one unit Amphistylic suspention early sharks and boney fishes Hyostylic separate attachment most derived Secondary autostylic suspension now there is an auditory element Dermatocranium dermal bone encases the skull Ch 7 022207 Dermatocranium Bony Fishes distinctive proportion of jaw to eye location face is relatively small to forehead gular bone and opercular series relives pressure Choanate fish and early tetrapods Choanate fish Choana name for the passageway between the nostril and the mouth animals that had them were believed to breath air four major groups of extinct fishes Tetrapoda one extinct group then Neotetrapoda Amphibians and Reptilomorpha Anapsid Skull missing arches there aren’t holes in the skull subtemperol fenestra transition to land Early Tetrapod roof bones Early tetropod anapsid Orbit moves back more of a face reduction of the chondrocranium dermal bone where the teeth are located Roof Bones figure 7.13 dermal bone, no longer calcified cartilage still don’t have the ability to chew Lower jaw Palate Anapsids solid region of skull single exoccipital condil rotation of head Columella bone free from working as part of the jaw transmission of vibration holes are present because attachment of the jaw muscles Synapsids birds itates Diapsids tuatara tegu lizard Notes 02/27/07 Evolution of Brain Case as jaw changed so did life style (ie eating habits) Figure 7.25 Evolution from anapsid to synapsid sagital crest developes on the skull to allow temporalis muscle to attach and create strong jaw movements dermal bones Synapsid skull mammals Cat Cranial Skeleton lose overlying roofing bones and fused bones which creates temporal bones tympanic bulla- new bone in mammals elaboration of sensory structures splitting of the back of the obrit Evolution of hard plate jaw muscles Adductor mandibulae evolved from the brain case, coroniod eminence provides attachment Superficial masseter deep masseter Temporalis jaw joint figure 7.29 quadrate and articular form hinge and become smaller thorugh evolution and eventually ear ossicles low jaw started as several bones and through evolution became reduced and fused not a hinge joint, closer to a ball and socket inner ear ossicles Ch. 8 Axial Skeleton length of the animal important for locomotion and respiration (ribs) support for interior organs Components of Vertebrae centrum space that use to be the notochord solid also called the body Zigaphrophyses extent posterior and antieriorly to make vertebrae fit together and interlock Neural Arch bears and protects the spinal cord spinal nerves come out Boney fish centrum has been divided in two reptilomorph transverse process, come off from the transverse plane, hold ribs Shark spinal chord has nerves and blood vessels Shapes of Vertebral Centra where ends of the spool encounter the next Aceoluos humans have no cavities at the end and have vertebral dishs called Amphicolelous Sharks have curver in with intervertebral pad and notochord Opisthocoelus ball and socket joint Procoelus part of centrum derived from interveretral body Heterocoelus birds have them saddle shaped that connect and can rock in both directions without twist lumbar vertebrae simple don’t bear ribs caudal vertebrae form the tail Vertebrae/Rib development Ribs have datilage at the costail ends Neural spines common in animals that walk on four limbs with lifted heads (ie horses) Jawed fish developing vertebrae tissue comes from the somites and contribute tissue which will come to lie in patchs along notochord (centrum) and neural tube (neural arch) ribs intermuscular (dorsal) ribs that wrap the body cavitiy itersegmental Subperitoneal what we have Rib attachment in Mud Puppies develop in the myoseptum strengthen the myseptum short and stout ribs The sternum pectoral guirdle protects interclavicle Evolution of axial skeleton Medial, caudal fins Medial separates the right and left side of the body boney support skeletal component of support for fins Caudal fins heterocercal tail acient before swim bladder conteracts the heavy body sinking to ocean bottom Homocercal same size animals that have swim bladder Axial skeleton in terrestrial vertebrates lost the advantage of buoyancy, thus body sinks towards land animal had to be able to support itself stronger and stiffer vertebral column animals develop fish like undulation with appendage gate alternating feet which creates torque Evolution of trunk vertebrae vertebrae have little modification with the exception of the atlas, which allows rotation of head Regional specialization Amphibians Reptilomoprhs huge variation in vertebral column turtles longer neck with specialized cervical vertebrae vertebrae dorsal to the pectoral gurdle ribs coelse with dermal bone to create shell along with dermal scales great variation and length of the vertebrae Birds 11 to 25 cervical vertebrae 7 caudaul vertebrae because ancestoral birds had tails pygostyle is the last vertebra support the tail feathers give tail movement for steering nduring flight Ribs have hook like process for attachment of muscles Ridged and firm fulcrum for movement firm attachemtn of pelvic girdle to vertebral column sin scrum where caudal vertebrae fuse with trunk vertebrae with girdle which enables bipedal locomotion Axial Skeleton Mammals Atlas/axis atlas losses zygapopthyses back to water some tetrapods returned back to water and lead to aquatic mammals no neck, firm attachment of head note medial fins to prevent rolling of body fins supported by kertin still seven cervical vertebrae Chevron bones- attachment for muscles to allow motion very rouind centrum that allows resisitences to pressure foreces metapophysis resist lateral motion lost their zygapopthyses Appendicular skeleton Origins of paired fins Paired fins of early jawless vertebrates evidence of lateral fins hetero tail Fin fold hypothesis pectoral and pelvic the only paired fins this location corresponds with homeotic gene boundries Pectoral girdle Placoderms similar elements in us such as clavicle and scapula Fishes heads and neck are on piece, thus the girdle is firmly attached to the skull Chondrithyes pectoral fin is much more important than in other animals tri-basalic fin three bases seen in cartiaglinous fishes boney fishes fish like rhipidistians dipnoi does not have much homology with tetrapod fins latameria have homogolous fins with tetrapod crossopterygium tassel fin early choanate fishes lateral ulna no inderstood homolgies Elements of tetrapod limb difference between and fin and a limb is the digits stylopodium pillar zeugopodium connects autopodium the foot itself Phalanges free digits Typical digit has five digits in the tetrapod Chapter 9 Girdles and limbs limb on land develop a sturdy organization land limbs have ridges or process for muscle attachment, unlike the smooth bones of aquatic animals in early land animals there was strong adductor muscles for support of body because limbs were not under the body Early Tetrapods early itheasaurs (tetrapod evolved from reptiles) moved fish like had many toes feet were like paddles fossa- means depression extension of the illium is for tail attachment Lizards bone elongation tibia and fibula fuse a sesamoid bone- membrane bone, developes in the connenctive tissue develop in a tendon Pisiform wrist bone patella knee baculum penis bone most diverse bone in the animal kingdom Olecranon- funny bone tarsal bones begin to fuse have a double joint in the wrist because fusion of the Tibiale + intermedium + Centralia Amphibians modern amphibans have four fingers in the front and five in the hind frogs have very short ribs and large scapula the illium and pubis are also very long and form the pelvic girdle large space for muscle attachment in the hind legs clavical is dermal bone evolution of the girdles interclavical of a reptile moves and thins line of evolution of reptile group that lead to snakes resulted in loss of pelvic girdle only in boa contrictors and some reminents of it in spurs Modifications with Flight at least three independent evolutions for flight pterosaur long ring finger formed leading membrane flap bird wing only three digits remaining Alula can be raised and lower on the wing by second digit reducing of the radius and increased ulna also bipedal large carina is where muscles for wings attach bones in birds have airsacs breath by bellows with their air sacs sclera bones present Bat all five digits tissue between all digits creates the wing have a broad sternum Mammals evolution of mammalian pectoral girdle the edge of the scapula developes a spine and produces a new bone evolution associated with the twisting of legs to form normal tetrapod gate glenoid fossa reorients so that limbs can shift Dog (canis) Fibula becomes smaller and the tibia become larger Influences of Locomotion dorsal/ventral flexation rapid locomotion animals have elongated bones and movement in dorsal ventral plane when they return to water they have this locomotion, like dophins and whales “A new Hand” Ch 10 324 to the end Chapter 9 Girdles and limbs limb on land develop a sturdy organization land limbs have ridges or process for muscle attachment, unlike the smooth bones of aquatic animals in early land animals there was strong adductor muscles for support of body because limbs were not under the body Early Tetrapods early itheasaurs (tetrapod evolved from reptiles) moved fish like had many toes feet were like paddles fossa- means depression extension of the illium is for tail attachment Lizards bone elongation tibia and fibula fuse a sesamoid bone- membrane bone, developes in the connenctive tissue develop in a tendon Pisiform wrist bone patella knee baculum penis bone most diverse bone in the animal kingdom Olecranon- funny bone tarsal bones begin to fuse have a double joint in the wrist because fusion of the Tibiale + intermedium + Centralia Amphibians modern amphibans have four fingers in the front and five in the hind frogs have very short ribs and large scapula the illium and pubis are also very long and form the pelvic girdle large space for muscle attachment in the hind legs clavical is dermal bone evolution of the girdles interclavical of a reptile moves and thins line of evolution of reptile group that lead to snakes resulted in loss of pelvic girdle only in boa contrictors and some reminents of it in spurs Modifications with Flight at least three independent evolutions for flight pterosaur long ring finger formed leading membrane flap bird wing only three digits remaining Alula can be raised and lower on the wing by second digit reducing of the radius and increased ulna also bipedal large carina is where muscles for wings attach bones in birds have airsacs breath by bellows with their air sacs sclera bones present Bat all five digits tissue between all digits creates the wing have a broad sternum Mammals evolution of mammalian pectoral girdle the edge of the scapula developes a spine and produces a new bone evolution associated with the twisting of legs to form normal tetrapod gate glenoid fossa reorients so that limbs can shift Dog (canis) Fibula becomes smaller and the tibia become larger Influences of Locomotion dorsal/ventral flexation rapid locomotion animals have elongated bones and movement in dorsal ventral plane when they return to water they have this locomotion, like dophins and whales “A new Hand” Ch 10 324 to the end Chapter 9 Girdles and limbs limb on land develop a sturdy organization land limbs have ridges or process for muscle attachment, unlike the smooth bones of aquatic animals in early land animals there was strong adductor muscles for support of body because limbs were not under the body Early Tetrapods early itheasaurs (tetrapod evolved from reptiles) moved fish like had many toes feet were like paddles fossa- means depression extension of the illium is for tail attachment Lizards bone elongation tibia and fibula fuse a sesamoid bone- membrane bone, developes in the connenctive tissue develop in a tendon Pisiform wrist bone patella knee baculum penis bone most diverse bone in the animal kingdom Olecranon- funny bone tarsal bones begin to fuse have a double joint in the wrist because fusion of the Tibiale + intermedium + Centralia Amphibians modern amphibans have four fingers in the front and five in the hind frogs have very short ribs and large scapula the illium and pubis are also very long and form the pelvic girdle large space for muscle attachment in the hind legs clavical is dermal bone evolution of the girdles interclavical of a reptile moves and thins line of evolution of reptile group that lead to snakes resulted in loss of pelvic girdle only in boa contrictors and some reminents of it in spurs Modifications with Flight at least three independent evolutions for flight pterosaur long ring finger formed leading membrane flap bird wing only three digits remaining Alula can be raised and lower on the wing by second digit reducing of the radius and increased ulna also bipedal large carina is where muscles for wings attach bones in birds have airsacs breath by bellows with their air sacs sclera bones present Bat all five digits tissue between all digits creates the wing have a broad sternum Mammals evolution of mammalian pectoral girdle the edge of the scapula developes a spine and produces a new bone evolution associated with the twisting of legs to form normal tetrapod gate glenoid fossa reorients so that limbs can shift Dog (canis) Fibula becomes smaller and the tibia become larger Influences of Locomotion dorsal/ventral flexation rapid locomotion animals have elongated bones and movement in dorsal ventral plane when they return to water they have this locomotion, like dophins and whales “A new Hand” Ch 10 324 to the end Muscular System Ch. 10 Muscle antagonists centergist muscles that work together in a group more complexity orgin is where the musclce attaches at the proximal end insertions is where the muscle connects at the distal end Elasticity everytime a muscle shortens it pulls on the antagonist the muscle has elastic properties which store energy and have elastic rebound Morphomology/ force-velocity morphology of muscles strap really long muscle fibers quick shortening of muscles less force eye muscles Bipennate slight muscle movement more force large number of myomeres in a cross section Fusiform bicep Multipennate Body musculature organization by development every muscle of the body is of mesendermal organ except the optic muscles limb buds grow out and muscle develops from somatic layer of lateral plate epbranchial muscles are in the pharyngeal slits Somatic musculature Axial Extrinsic ocular muscles of the eye are considered to be axial Branchiomeric muscles associated with the sqeezing to create exhale Jaw Mandibular adductor mandiblae cheek muscle expansion and developlement of jaw muscles depressor mandibulae a jaw muscle in the mud puppy, not found in other tetrapods temporalis digastric muscle Hyoid Facial Chapter 10 Muscles source of homology intervation of nerves to those muscles Mandibular V Hyoid VII Branchiomeric X, XII Shark to cat evolution Hypoaxial extend up into the branchial region in the sharks supoorts the base of the throat and the mandible extension of trunk muscles for opening jaw and expanding pharynx prehyoid muscles and posthyoid muscles get a loss of segmentation and elongation of muscles respitory in shark Terestrail vertebrates subdivison of muscles that were present in shark birds can transplant different tissue of speices to one another and can show development because the cells are naturally stained in quail these muscles contribute to the tongue Trunk + Tail Muscles Epaxial dorsal rami nerve that goes to expial muscles interspinalis muscles connect vertebrae Iliocostalis longitudinal muscles that extent between girdles Horizontal skeletogenous septum Hypaxial ventral rami nerve that goes to hypaxial muscles and visceral organs diaphragm is hypaxial Evolution of epaxial and hypaxial muscles simple myotum pattern to a more complex structure with over lapping layers which provides more support for vertebrate body wall also used for ventral flexion and twists in trunk layers run at different angles for support aponeurosis- sheets of connective tissue between muscle layers Appendicular pectoral Appendage fish to lizard to mammal subdivision of muscles from fish to tetrapod for locomotion lizards have large ventral parts because they must hold their body off the ground muscles that operated the gills (branchiolmeric) moved in mammals to the scapular region of the body only the dorsal and ventral muscles are considered appendicular because they were part of the limb buds because the increase in agility there developed more complex muscles pectoralis muscle is the musclar swith for the pectoral girdle, theis muscle keeps it from collapsing latisimis dorsi in reptiles has become lateris major in mammals going from a really simple control of an appendage with no real locomotion to an animal with locomotion and then to an animal with a different posture to create a more streamline system with many subdivision but the initial homology is never lost tetrapods have hyaxial and branchiomere muscles that support the shoulder Electric Organs specialization that happened in some fish 200 are electric fish have an electric organ made of modified muscles cells the cells are multinucleate but have no actin or myocin stacked onto of each other with a motor neuron for each normal junctions but the number of nuertotransmitt receptors (actiocolin) is amazingly high smooth on neuron side which generates an action potential that the rough side can not because lack of sodium gates creates a potential difference and then the 120 mv in each series which create enough electric current that they can actually kill other animals weakly electric fish take electroreceptive receptors and find other fish with these sensorys also used in courtship Chapter 11 Support + Locomotion Swimming primiative style of locomotion all vertebrates can swim water buoyancy body displaces the water and the body experiences lift provides support drag trying to move quickly in water friction of the water also a pressure drag Body form fusiform shape 1 for diameter to 5 for the length smooth body surface Undulations figure 11.1 muscles fish is pushing off the water cone shaped arrangement in crusing swimming the only muscle that is active is the slow oxidative muscles have a lot of mytocontria and blood supply, thus continual activity most of the meat of the body is from the fast glycolytic muscles less metobolicly active different types of ungulations how much the body moves anguilliform – whole body carangiform - half thunniform – little more than tail ostraciform – only tail 2 “gears” in fish swimming fast swimming creates extreme demands on body form, that’s why it is not usually maintained tapered tails creates less eddies slow swimming Heteorcercal tail design of the vertebral column vertebrae reduce compression dipdo spondili- more potential for flexibility provides lift Swim bladder can control the amount of gas in it slowly, but not quickly, thus active fish (like tuna) are hindered by gas bladder develop ventrally and migrats to dorsal region regulate air at will Terrestrical Locomotion Walking air no lift less drag Limb position splayed resting on the ground limbs held under body hind limbs held under body Neural Spines there is a huge amount of ligamentous body ligaments hold it together in the vertebral column ligmanent are like a bow for the vertebral column a longer neural spine can do more of its job muscular spring that attaches pelvis transmittion fo force from sternumbra to limbs serratus ventralis muscle much of stability has to do with ligaments and bones Stepping in Amphibs/Rep/Mammals Ch. 11 cont. Locomotion Gaits alternating tripod gait very stabilized turtle is a good example of an animal not well apdapted for speed most of the time there are three legs on the ground Horse Lateral gate Ipsilateral same side contralateral opposite limbs Fast pace or rack animal is on the left, front and hind limb, then flying, then right front and hind limb Trot flying then alternative front and hind Fast Gallop front left, then right, then flying, back right, left, then flying more stable landing and rocking motion half bound rabbits similar to the gallop hind legs are syncronis, same time Full bound no alternating, front and back are syncronis Cheetah gallop with full extension because of the flexion of the back change foot fall pattern Limb adaptations force armadillo there are long protuberances and animals limb produces a great amount of force speed horse modified so that limbs move in huge arch lever arms seesaw you can exert more force the closer you are to the apex small forces near the apex equals a big force towards the longer end of the limb force at imput X length at imput = Force out and length out Force out = (Force input X Length input) / Length output Modifications of cursors the long limbs are, the quicker animals become limb closed to pivot point you get faster motion planitgrade flat footed Digitigrade on the ball of the foot Unguligrade on the tip toes opertunity for rotation decrease in quickly moving animals Foot first board and plyable foot Rhinocerus must have broad foot because large body size and mud Next horse narrowing becomes very strong with stablilized center fussion of radius and ulna, similar in the tibia, fibula Cheetah sholder allow for movement 75 mph Plop of the forg very large lonf hind legs in jumpers uses large extensor muscles joint straightens out Flight gliding ribs support flaps that go out to the side escape behavior flying lizard and squirrels air foil or surface needed Birds have alula which causes wind to be shunted off wings otherwise creates turbulence always on the edge of falling out of sky high energy demands but effieceint reduction in # of digits ventral surface is concave dorsal surface is convex wing has fusiform shape to calucalte velocity, add Vl and Vd and subtract Vl from Vv differention in current give lift Alula compensates for problems associated with flying fast anatomical adapt for increase velocity to get off ground, bird makes huge wide strokes to create vortex ring to get initial lift to get off ground fig. 11.33 understand wing movement fig. 11.34 bone muscle connections fig. 11.35 pectorlis and supracoracoideus both connect to keel of sternum gives lower center of gravity Chapter 12 Senosry systems bats emit ultrasounds to detect environment Major receptor types chemical mechanical, temperature, and electrical (cells that pick up vibration) Photoreceptors Fig. 12.8 lateral line systems open canal sits on muscle with hairs pores in skin collect vibrations, shunt to canals, shakes hairs, muscle receives signal called neuromasts vibrations are pressure changes Neuromast structure cupula pulls on hairs at top single cilium with adjuct microvillia serially stacked little protein connections between them all Neurons at base of receptor cells afferent- towards CNS efferent- away from CNS Fig. 12.9 specialization of sensory receptors cells each one has neurotransmitters that carry signal strength Ampullary organs are electroreceptive no stereocilia afferent neurons only Tuberous organ, also electrorecptive no kinoglium only one afferent neuron tube shaped Fig. 12.10 around head, numerous neuromast organs convolutions of lateral line around eyes, etc. bones oriented around lateral line system Fig. 12.11 latimeria have rostral organs with huge electroreceptive capabinties Fig. 12.13 cladogram of electroreception Chapter 12 pg 420- articular- mandibular arch- malleus (outer most oscile-tensor tymapany muscle which is innerved by the facial nerve V) Quadrate- incus looks like an anvil Hyoid arch- hyomandibula- stapes- intermediate columella- stapedius innvered by the VII facial nerve Inner ear development you have a thinning of the placiod which forms an indentation and then an vesicle sacs and ducts filled with hairs structure is embedded in bone surrounded by fluid called parilymph connective tissue strands give support overall structure is ducts (tubes) within canals (space) three semicircular ducts horizontal and two anterior and posterior vertical ducts three deminisions covered unifed to centeral utriculus which is attached to the saculus tube opens to the surface called the endolymphatic sac in some animals to equalize pressure ampulla are an enlarged duct with christa which are small clumps of tuffs of sensory cells (hairs) that are embedded in membranes bigger christa called maculae lagena is an out cropping that enlongates and forms coplea in humans set of three anterior and three posterior placiods called the actavolateralis because 8th cranial nerve supplies the inner ear adjance nerves give rise to later line system Membranous labyrinth lamprays don’t have the horiziontal duct Gnathostome Equilibrum sense otoliths Statoconia- support cells for the hair ccelss in the christa secrete a gelatinous membrane with a calcium deposists (jelly is statoconia) calcareous sand grains get localized here and wrapped in calcium secretions sensitive to the earth’s magnetic field make stratified layers like trees to count annual rings of fish found in the otoliths mollusk incorporated a single sand grain which resided in an organ and cells repond to the sand grain to determine gravity hearing Weberian Apparatus use courtship sounds in their lives carp is an example extrememly sensive of sound that takes vibrations made in the swim bladder, transmits through ribs to perilymph swim bladder changes the vibrations direction and the membrane starts to vibrate and transmits through weberian ossicles gives animals the ability to hear sound over a wide location and lower frequencies Evolution of Auditory Mechanisms eternal acoustic meatus external tymphanum columnella or stapes oval window is where pressure gets dissipated squamates lissamphibia operculum additional ear occiscle linkage between scapula and the hearing system mammals bats have very large pinna good at amplifing sound moveable bats generate load sounds and tightening their ear osciles to prevent damage to ears (hair cells) osciles amplify sound 20 times cochlea Chapter 13 Neural Neurons Purkinje cell in the cerebellum complex motor activities numerous dendrites Motor neuron multi polar can be named by processes coming out of cell bodies multipolor bipolar pseudounipolar sensory gangliea dendrite when input comes cell body axon is where output goes terminal to muscle Note Table 13-1 of terms PNS\CNS Central nervous system blood vessels, astrocytes glia cells- microglia are thought to be amibod blood-brain barrier prevents forign bodies from entering the spinal fluid Spinal Cord, Brain Stem Chpt 13 ( pg 437 - 466) Spinal cord organization it is segmenatally organized stain used for nueronfilaments white matter- neurofilments, myolin gray matter- inner structure (like a butterfly) filled with blood vessesls because high metablish dorsal gray matter connects with spinal nerve small central canal filled with spinal fluid Mammalian nervous sysem figure 13.6 roots that leave the spinal cord ventral horn of gray matter is where motor neurons reside dorsal horn is where the sensory axions terminate in spinal cord cell bodies called dorsal root ganglia intermediate region which is where vesseral cell bodies are autonomic effector neurons in the ganglia it contacts neurons pre and post ganglionic cells that go to effectors Functional groups of neurons table 13.3 Brainstem groups dorsal sensory ventral motor brain organized like spinal cord the brain actually has motor neurons in it figure 13.8 special sensory develop from nuergenic placodes Evolution of sp. cord development mitotioc cells at the base and then suedostratified only one cell layer thick, but nucli end at different heights cells migrate and move to mature positions in the spinal cord and send axons out internuerons connect and animals begins to move then sensory neurons develop Matrix development and division zone ependyma is the ciliad center where fluid is moved throughout the matric there is a massive over production of neurons, half of them die either programmed cell death or competition for axons to connect to muscles Spinal nerves reflex figure 13.10 muscle spindles are stretch receptors no interneuron, action is instantaneous for you to understand something it must be in your cortex conscious part of your brain tracts in the spinal cord/brain figure 13.11 Central pattern generators for movement enlargement in the cerval and lumbar region of the spinal cord corresponding to appendages for locomotion segmentation of nervous system in the embryonic life of a shark segmentail nature of motor nerves dermatomes also segmental segmental sensory fields around the body look at the distribution of blisters because they live in sensory nerves Ch. 13 Cranial Nerves pg. 437-66 Special Sensory dermatomes- regions of sensory regions Shingles which developes segmentally in dermatomes the head has 8 segments hind brain which is the extenetion of the spinal cord is where the segmentation is still very obvious dorsal and ventral spinal nerves are very segmented through the body and carry into the brain as ventral and dorsal nerves There are 10 nerves in the cranial region I Olfactory II Optic III Oculomotor supplies extrinsic eye muscles IV Trochlear supplies extrinsic eye muscles V Trigeminal mandibular arch VI Abducens supplies muscles of the eye VII Facial supplies the hyoid arch, facial expression VIII Octoval IX Glossopharyngeal supplies the third visceral arch and as you add salivary glands you add autonomic function X Vagus many functions and reduction of somatic fibers, innvervated the last four arches XII Occipitals exits the skull and interveates the tongue There are also lateral line nerves in animals with lateral line systems that are not numbered the lateral line nerves are different than the cranial nerves Ventral cranials primarily somatic motor dorsal cranials mixed sensory and motor segmental pattern and homology/evolution segmentation of the motor neurons and reticulospinal neurons, as seen in zebra fish the somitiomeres per segment addition of gustatory sensory system the tongue has standard innervation special sensory function which is taste Flehmen behavior raise lip to bring in special odors there are different sensory receptors than in the nose vomeronasal organ in feramone detection with social significance almost all nerves are bilaterally symmetrical Ch 14 Brain and meninges pg 473 -81 5 brain regions from 3 vesicles three vesicles forebrain telencephalon diencephalon midbrain mesencephalon hindbrain metencephalon becomes cerebellum myelencephalon becomes medulla oblongata Shark brain and ventricles ventricles are spaces in the brain Reticular formation command sensory lots of inflow efferent pathways corpus callosum connects the right and left side of the brain Tetrapod basics enlargement of cerebellum and cerebrum as movement becomes more developed mid brain does not change commands to swim run fly originate from this region Meninges and CSF maninges produces the fluids in the brain solcus seperates the right and left side of the brain the dura mater (toughest connective tissue) covers the inside of the skull and the interior of the solcus pia mater is thin connective tissue and contains blood vessels contribute fluid and get glucouse to the brain blood brain barrier forms here Could I do a project looking at homosexuals and the attraction to certain scents? Chapter 19 Circulation Circ patterns fish/mammals Fishes fish have low blood pressure because their circulator systems aren’t fighting gravity single circulation four chambered heart first chamber has valves at both ends and pushes blood into atrium atrium to ventricle sends blood into elastic region called conus or bulbus arteriosus gives when high pressure comes and dampens pulse for gills blood breaks into capillaries at gills and picks up oxygen (90%) aorta distributes through out body and then comes back to heart through the inferior vena cava low oxygen in the heart Mammals heart is divided in half, thus double circulation system vena cava receives unoxygenated blood on the left side right side received oxyegenated blood and then sends it through out the body through the aorta digestive system breaks into capillary and connects to other capillaries in the liver called a hepatic portal vein all capillary systems that connect to each other before going through the heart are called portal veins pulmonary system slows blood pressure to the lungs Heart conductile system Heart the sinoatrial node tissue is homologous with the fish heart acts as the pace maker of the heart fastest inherent rythem atrioventricular node it imposes a delay for contraction sends impulse through the perkinge mucles cells and cause an instantaneous reaction to give a pulse of the heart Blood vessels veins, arteries, and nerves are always near one another intima are simple squamous cells in the very interior of the vessel capillaries only have intima media is inner layer that contains smooth muscle adventitia is connective tissue that covers the artery vein walls are much thinner capillaries usually contain a red blood cell, which is also usually the size of their diameter capillaries are everywhere, there is no where in the body where a capillary is not 4 cells away Development of blood and vessels embryo embryo forms overlay of blood vessels over the gut a tube developes and becomes the heart and aortic arches develop and unite the aorta then spreads over the yoke blood cells develop at first in blood islands cell types of blood cells red blood cells no nucli fragments of cells, platelets focus on fishes
