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Toxicity of naturally occurring compounds of Lamiaceae and Lauraceae to three
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stored-product insects
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V. Rozmana,, I. Kalinovica, Z. Korunicb
a
Faculty of Agriculture in Osijek, University of J. J. Strossmayer in osijek, Trg Sv.
Trojstva 3, 31000 Osijek, Croatia
b
Diatom Research and Consulting Inc,. 14 Greenwich Dr., Guelph ON Canada N1H 8B8
Abstract
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The compounds 1,8-cineole, camphor, eugenol, linalool, carvacrol, thymol,
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borneol, bornyl-acetate and linalyl-acetate are naturally occurring in the essential oils of
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the aromatic plants Lavandula angustifolia Chaix., Rosmarinus officinalis L., Thymus
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vulgaris L. and Laurus nobilis L. These compounds were evaluated for fumigant activity
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against adults of Sitophilus oryzae L., Rhyzopertha dominica F. and Tribolium castaneum
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Herbst. The insecticidal activities varied with insect species, compound and the exposure
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time. The most sensitive species was S. oryzae, followed by R. dominica. T. castaneum
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was highly tolerant against tested compounds. The most effective compound and carrier
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of fumigant toxicity was 1,8-cineole, followed by camphor, eugenol, carvacrol, linalool,
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and thymol. Borneol, bornyl-acetate and lynalyl-acetate were less effective. These
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compounds may be suitable as fumigants because of their high volatility, effectiveness,
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and their safety.
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Keywords: 1,8-cineole, camphor, eugenol, linalool, carvacrol, thymol, borneol,
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bornyl-acetate, linalyl-acetate, fumigant toxicity, Sitophilus oryzae, Rhyzopertha
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dominica, Tribolium castaneum, wheat.
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
Corresponding author. Tel.: ++385 31 224 244; fax: ++385 31 207 017
e-mail address: vrozman@pfos.hr (V. Rozman)
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1. Introduction
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During the past few decades application of synthetic pesticides to control
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agricultural pests has been a standard practice. However, with the growing evidence
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regarding detrimental effects of many of the conventional pesticides on health and
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environment, require for safer means of pest management has become very crucial.
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Therefore, the use of the safe, low toxicity botanical pesticides is now emerging as one of
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prime means to protect crops and their products and the environment from pesticide
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pollution, which is a global problem (Prakash and Rao, 1997).
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The insecticidal activity of a large number of essential oils and other plant
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extracts was assessed against several major agricultural pests (Golob et al., 1999; Weaver
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and Subramanyam, 2000; Keita et al., 2001; Lee et al., 2001; Andronikashvili, and
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Reichmuth, 2002; Kalinovic et al. 2002; Papachristos and Stamopoulus, 2002; Park et al.,
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2003a; Kim et al., 2003; Regnault-Roger et al., 1993; Regnault-Roger and Hamraoui,
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1993).
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Prakash and Rao (1997) described 866 different plant species that produce
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chemicals useful against insects and listed their 256 biologically active chemical
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components. However, in spite of the wide recognition that many plants possess
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insecticidal properties, only a handful of pest control products directly obtained from
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plants are presently in use because the commercialization of new botanicals can be
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hindered by a number of issues (Isman, 1997).
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In the past, several of these extracts such as nicotine (from Nicotiana tabacum
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Linn.), quassin (from Quassia amara Linn. and Picrasma excelsa Lindl.), ryania (from
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Ryania speciosa Vahl.) widely used in Europe and North America have lost their
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regulatory status. Currently, a few of these extracts such as pyrethrum (from
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Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium Vis.), rotenone (from Derris spp. and Lonchocarpus
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spp.) and neem (from Azadirachta indica A. Juss.) are used in North America and
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Europe. Botanicals used as insecticides presently constitute 1% of the world insecticide
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market but the annual sales growth of 10 to 15 % is possible (Isman, 1997).
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The study during the last several years has been primary focused on the
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determination of the insecticidal activity of isolated chemical compounds from plant
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extract in order to find out the most biologically active chemical components (Clemente
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et al., 2000; Huang et al., 2002; Lee et al., 2003; Park et al., 2003a, 2003b; Regnault-
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Roger et al., 2004, 2005).
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The purpose of the present study was to investigate the fumigant activity of
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naturally occurring compounds 1,8-cineole, camphor, eugenol, linalool, carvacrol,
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thymol, borneol, bornyl-acetate and linalyl-acetate of the essential oils of Lavandula
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angustifolia Ch., Rosmarinus officinalis L., Thymus vulgaris L. and Laurus nobilis L.
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against three stored-product beetles. This paper describes for the first time the fumigation
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activity of thymol, borneol, eugenol and linalyl acetate against S. oryzae and eugenol,
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borneole, bornyl-acetate, carvacrol, linalool and lynalil-acetate against R. dominica.
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2. Materials and methods
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2.1 Essential oils, compounds, gas chromatography
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The essential oils of L. angustifolia, R. officinalis, T. vulgaris and L. nobilis were
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purchased from "Ireks aroma", Zagreb, Croatia. Oils were analyzed by gas
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chromatography “Perkin-Elmer” apparatus (USA), GC – type 8700, column firm
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“Supelco” (USA), SP-2380, capillary column 30m, i.d. 0,32mm, 0,20 μm film thickness
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and the main compounds were determined. Similar method is described in papers of
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Andronikashvili and Reichmuth (2002) and Regnault-Roger et al. (2004).
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2.2 Chemicals (Compounds)
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The main compounds discovered in oils of analyzed aromatic plants were
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purchased from “Sigma-Aldrich” (Export Division Grünwalder Weg 30 D-82041
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Deisenhofen, Germany) and “Fluka” (Industriestrasse 25, CH-9471 Buchs, SG
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Switzerland). These compounds have been used for bioassays.
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List of the chemicals purchased from “Sigma”, “Aldrich” and “Fluka”
Compounds
produced by
1,8-cineole - (eucalyptol, C10H18O, EC No: 207-431-5)
“Sigma”
camphor - ((1R)-(+) camphor 99%, C10H16O, EEC No: 207-355-2)
“Sigma”
eugenol – ((2-Methoxy-4-[2-prophenyl]phenol), C10H12O2, EC No:202-589-1)
“Sigma”
linalool - (97% linalool, C10H18O, EC No:201-134-4)
“Aldrich”
carvacrol – (98% 5-isopropyl-2-methylphenol, C10H14O, EC No:207-889-6)
“Aldrich”
thymol - (99,5% 5-methyl-2-isopropylphenol, C10H14O, EC No:201-944-8)
“Sigma”
borneol -(87% borneol, 12% isoborneol, C10H18O, EC No:208-080-0)
“Sigma”
bornyl-acetate – ((-)-bornyl acetate, 97%)
“Aldrich”
linalyl-acetate - (linalyl acetate ~ 95%)
“Fluka”
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2.3 Insects
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Cultures of the rice weevil - Sitophilus oryzae L., the lesser grain borer -
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Rhyzopertha dominica F. and the red flour beetle Tribolium castaneum Herbst., were
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collected from the granaries in the eastern part of Croatia. They were reared in the
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laboratory to obtain the first generation (F1) to be used in bioassays. Adults used in the
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experiments were 1 to 3 weeks old, mixed sex. S. oryzae and R. dominica were reared on
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whole wheat grain in glass containers containing 0.5 kg of clean wheat with 13%
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moisture content (m.c.) at 29 ± 1 oC and 70 ± 5% relative humidity (r.h.) in 24 hours dark
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period. T. castaneum was reared on mixture of whole wheat flour and maize flour at the
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rate of 1:1 in glass containers containing 0.5 kg of the mixture with 12% m.c. at 29 ± 1 oC
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and 70 ± 5% r.h. in 24 hours dark period.
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2.4 Fumigant activity
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The method used to determine the fumigant activity of tested compounds was a
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modified procedure described by Prates et all. 1998a. Ten (10) adults of 3 test insect
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species placed in silky mesh cages and put into glass containers of 720 ml capacity, were
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mixed with 250 g of wheat having 12% grain moisture. Nine compounds discovered by
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analysing the essential oils of Lavandula angustifolia Ch., Rosmarinus officinalis L.,
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Thymus vulgaris L. and Laurus nobilis L. and purchased from “Sigma”, “Aldrich” and
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“Fluka” were tested in 5 doses (0.1; 1; 10; 50 and 100 µl/720 volume). The substances
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were applied with «Hirschman» digital micropipette on filter paper attached to the lids of
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tightly sealed glass containers. Each sample was set up in 4 replications and maintained
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under controlled conditions (temperature 29±1 oC, humidity 70±5%, 24 hours dark
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period). Results of fumigant activity were determined by test insect mortality over the
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exposure period, and compared to the untreated (control) samples with no compounds
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applied.
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2.5 Statistical analysis
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The bioassay were established by no-choice test in 4 replications for each single
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treatment (isolate), test doses and test insect species on two culture media, and the control
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with no application. Results were shown in timing series of treatment activity as
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percentages of test insect mortality over the exposure period. Mortality was subjugated to
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the multi-factorial analysis of variance (ANOVA) for each day over the exposure period
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according to the GLM (general linear model). Significant differences were shown by
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LSD test (least significant difference) in tables. Data processing was conducted by «The
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SAS System for Windows 98» and «SPSS 11.0 for Windows».
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3. Results
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3.1. Chemical compounds of the essential oils
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The essential oil of each plant was analyzed on gas chromatograph and the main
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compounds were determined. The majority of the identified compounds in the essential
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oil of Lavandula angustifolia, Rosmarinus officinalis, Thymus vulgaris and Laurus
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nobilis are presented in Table 1.
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3. 2. Fumigant activity
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Mortality in untreated grain was less than 1.5% for all insects, at the end of 7 day
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test.
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3.2.1 Sitophilus oryzae L.
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When applied to S. oryzae all compounds showed fumigant activity after 24 hours
exposure, even with lower doses, and obtained 72.5 – 100% mortality (Table 2).
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Significant differences were observed among the doses tested, as follows:
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between two lower doses (0,1 and 1 μl/720 ml volume), and the remaining three higher
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doses (10; 50; 100 μl/720ml volume). Thymol, borneol and 1,8-cineole were highly
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effective. Applied at the lowest concentration of 0.1μl/720ml these compounds caused
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100% mortality after 24 hours exposure (Table 3).
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3.2.2 Rhyzopertha dominica F.
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R. dominica showed very high susceptibility to all compounds applied (Table 2).
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High significant differences among the compounds and the control without the
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application were observed after 24 hours exposure. Even at lower doses average mortality
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of 77.5 – 100% was obtained. Among the doses tested (Table 4) significant differences
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were observed, as follows, 1,8 cineole, camphor, linalool were highly effective and
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obtained 100% mortality for R. dominica even at the lowest dose (0,1 μl/720 ml volume);
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with application of bornyl-acetate at the lowest dose if compared to the remaining doses
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over the first 3 days of exposure; with eugenol at the lowest dose (0,1 μl/720 ml volume)
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if compared to the remaining four doses over the first four days of exposure; and with
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carvacrol, borneol and thymol at the lowest dose if compared to the remaining four doses
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over the 7 days exposure. This indicates that these six compounds should be applied at
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the dose of 1 μl/720 ml volume.
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3.2.3 Tribolium castaneum Herbst.
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Fumigant efficacy tests of the compounds against T. castaneum showed very low
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susceptibility in almost all treatments. After 24 hours exposure period with low doses,
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LSD – tests among compounds and the control with no application proved significant
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differences in mortality for T. castaneum only in application with eugenol (12.5%).
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Mortality obtained with the remaining compounds showed no significant differences if
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compared to the control with no application (Table 2).
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Over the seven days test mortality was 0,0% – 92,5 (Table 5). Among the doses
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tested significant differences were observed, or rather, most of the isolates obtained
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higher mortality with highest doses (100 μl/720 ml volume), especially 1,8-cineole
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(92,5% mortality after 7 days). In the next group we can included linalool and camphor
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applied at the highest doses (70.0 – 77.5% mortality after 7 days). Other six compounds
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were less effective causing the mortality up to 60% after 7 days of the exposure time.
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4. Discussion
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The aromatic plants contain essential oils in concentrations of 1 – 3% (Tunç, et
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al., 2000). The large quantities of plant material should be processed to gain enough
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essential oil for commercial-scale tests. However, certain compounds can exhibit much
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stronger activity than essential oil on the whole. Such studies should initiate cultivation of
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plant varieties that produce these compounds in larger quantities, or synthetic production
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should be an option to gain enough material for the application.
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Positive results of contact and fumigant activity of monoterpenes were obtained
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with S. oryzae. Shaaya et al. (1991) and Weaver et al. (1994) proved susceptibility of rice
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weevil to terpenoids applied and determined camphor, 1,8-cineole and carvacrol as
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carriers of fumigant toxicity and growth inhibitors, which is similar to our results. Prates
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et al. (1998b) proved terpenoids effective for rice weevil control by isolating 1,8-cineole
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and limonene from Brazilian flora. The authors reported that the compounds had lethal
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effect to rice weevil for their influence to respiratory system of the insect over cuticle and
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through the digestive system. Lee et al. (2001) proved that menthone, limonene and
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linalool isolated from Mentha arvensis L. showed toxic activity against rice weevil. Lee
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et al. (2003) proved that plant monoterpenes cineole, fenchrone and pulegone in
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preliminary fumigant analyses successfully controlled the pest, and recommended these
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monoterpenes as suitable fumigants because of their high volatility, fumigant efficacy
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and safety. Apart from these monoterpenes, bornyl-acetate, limonene, mircen, felandren,
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pinen, sabinen and terpinen isolated from Korean native plants attained very good
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repellent activity (Park et al., 2003).
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We extended range of the active oil substances of aromatic plants tested until now
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for four more compounds (thymol, borneol, eugenol and linalyl acetate) in the control of
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S. oryzae.
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Sing and Upadhyay (1993) proved susceptibility of R. dominica to plant extracts,
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particularly to the essential oil from rhizome of A. calamus. Xu et al. (1994) proved
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toxicity of estragol isolated from essential oil of Clausena dunniana L. and. and Dunkel
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and Sears (1998) determined toxicity of essential oil vapours from Artemisia tridenata
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Nutt. ssp. vaseyana (Rydb.) against R. dominica. By gas chromatography Dunkel and
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Sears (1998) isolated 1,8-cineole and camphor as the major carriers of toxicity. Shaaya et
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al. (1991) and Prates et al. (1998a) obtained the same results by evaluating essential oil
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compounds from Eucalyptus spp. and isolated 1,8-cineole and limonene as carriers of
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insecticide activity. The authors proved transfer of contact toxicity over cuticle, and
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fumigant toxicity through the respiratory and digestive system. Limonene as a form of
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azadirachtin proved effective even to the multi-resistant varieties of R. dominica by the
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growth inhibition of the progeny of next generations (Rahim, 1998). Qiantain and
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Yongcheng (1998) determined a contact toxicity of the essential oils from Chinese
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cinnamon L., Illicium verum L., Cinnamoum camphora L., with camphor as the major
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monoterpene for control of the pests. Suya et al. (1998) proved the fumigant activity of
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thymol against R. dominica by its isolation from essential oil of Elsholtzia sp..
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We extended the range of the active oil substances of aromatic plants tested until
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now against R. dominica for six more compounds: eugenol, borneole, bornyl-acetate,
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carvacrol, linalool and lynalil-acetate.
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In our results T. castaneum was highly resistant species against the activity of the
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tested essential oil compounds. Only the compound 1,8 cineole applied at the highest
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concentration (100 µl/720 volume) generated the acceptable effectiveness against T.
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castanem after the exposure of 7 days. Prates et al. (1998a) assessed 1,8-cineole and
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limonene, monoterpenes from Eucaliptus and Citrus genera against T. castaneum and
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found out limonene more effective than 1,8-cineole, though both compounds tested in six
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doses showed only a certain fumigant and contact toxicity. Qiantai and Yongcheng
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(1998) assessed contact efficacy of camphor as major isolate from essential oils of
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Chinese cinnamon L., Lucium verum L., and Cinnamoum camphora L., against R.
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dominica, S. zeamais and T. castaneum, and found camphor effective against T. zeamais
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and R. dominica, whereas the isolate against T. castaneum showed repellent, but not
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insecticidal activity. Xiaoqing et al. (1998) also suggested that the pest could be
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controlled by compounds from Citrus genus (particularly limonene) evaluating seven
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plant extracts for contact, repellent and fumigant efficacy. Clemente et al. (2000)
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obtained positive results by treating T. castaneum with essential oil of Lavandula spica L.
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that contained 40% of 1,8-cineole as carrier of fumigant activity. The laboratory studies
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of Lee et al. (2003) proved that T. castaneum could be controlled by 1,8-cineole, 1-
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fechone and pulegone, but only at the highest doses.
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The results of our study are mostly in the agreement with the results of other
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investigators. By the comparison of the results of the fumigant activities against S. oryzae
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1
and R. dominica of nine essential oil compounds, 1,8-cineole as the most effective. Also,
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results of the analyses by using a gas chromatograph (Table 1) proved 1,8-cineole as a
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compound of all essential oils (lavender, rosemary, thyme and laurel) which made it as a
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probable major active substance and the carrier of toxicity against pests tested.
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In the next group of compounds also highly effective against S. oryzae and R.
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dominica we can include camphor (compound of lavender, rosemary and laurel essential
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oils), carvacrole (compound of thyme essential oil), linalool (compound of lavender,
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laurel and thyme essential oils), eugenol (compound of lavander, thyme and laurel
9
essential oil) and thymol (compound of thyme essential oil).
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In the third group of compounds with lower toxicity against S. oryzae and R.
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dominica we included borneole and bornyl-acetate (compounds of lavender, rosemary
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and thyme essential oils), and linalyl acetate (compound of lavender essential oil).
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5. Conclusions
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The results of fumigant activity of some compounds from laurel, lavender,
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rosemary and thyme essential oils against Sitophilus oryzae L., Rhyzopertha dominica F.
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and Tribolium castaneum Herbst., dangerous pests of the Croatian silos and storages,
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proved that such investigations offered new options in search for alternatives for
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fumigants currently in use. For the first time we proved the fumigation activity of thymol,
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borneol, eugenol and linalyl acetate against S. oryzae and eugenol, borneole, bornyl-
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acetate, carvacrol, linalool and lynalil-acetate against R. dominica.
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By solving the cost/effective commercial production, it is possible that some of
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the tested compounds should find the place in IPM strategies, especially where the
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emphasis is on the environmental safety and a need to replace the more dangerous and
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toxic fumigants and insecticides. Such findings make positive contribution to the
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production of healthy food and the protection of the environment.
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Acknowledgements
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We are grateful to chemical industry “Saponia” Osijek for GC analyses and also
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thank “Ireks Aroma” for their assistance in providing the necessary Dalmatian essential
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oil extracts. We thank Dr. Paul Fields of Cereal Research Centre, Agriculture and
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AgriFood Canada, Winnipeg, Mb, Canada, for critically reviewing the manuscript.
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4
inhibition induced by monoterpenes on Acanthoscelides obtectus (Say.) (Coleoptera), a
5
bruchid of kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). Journal of Stored Products Research
6
31, 291-299.
7
Regnault-Roger, C., Ribodeau, M., Hamraoui, A., Bareau, I., Blanchard, P., Gil-Munoz,
8
M-I., Barberan, F. T., 2004. Polyphenolic compounds of Mediterranean Lamiaceae and
9
investigation of orientational effects on Acanthoscelides obtectus (Say). Journal of
10
Stored Products Research 40, 395-408.
11
Shaaya, E., Ravid, U., Paster, N., Juven, B., Zisman, U., Pissarev, V., 1991. Fumigant
12
toxicity of essential oils against four major store-product insects. Journal of chemical
13
ecology 17, 499-504.
14
15
Singh, G., Upadhyay, R. K., 1993. Essential oils – a potent source of natural pesticides.
Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research 52, 676-683.
16
Tunç, İ., Berger, B. M., Erler, F., Dağlı, F., 2000. Ovicidal activity of essential oils from
17
five plants against two stored-product insects. Journal of Stored Products Research 36,
18
161-168.
19
Weaver, D. K., Dunkel, F. V., Potter, R. C., Ntezurubanza, L., 1994. Contact and
20
fumigant efficacy of powdered and intact Ocimum canum Sims (Lamiales: Lamiaceae)
21
against Zabrotes subfasciatus (Boheman) adults (Coleoptera: Bruchidae). Journal of
22
Stored Products Research 30, 243-252.
16
1
Weaver, D. K., Subramanyam, B., 2000. Botanicals, pp. 303-320 Kluwer Academics
2
Publishers, Dordrecht. In Alternatives to pesticides in stored-product IPM eds
3
Subramanyam, B; Hagstrum, D. W. pp. 303-320.
4
Xiaoqing, W., Wufeng, J., Wenbin, M., 1998. Studies on inhibitory impacts of seven
5
botanical extract on population formation of Tribolium castaneum. Proceedings of the
6
7th International Working Conference on Stored – product Protection, Beijing, China,
7
vol. 1, 866-869.
8
Xu, H. H., Zhao, S. H., Zhu, L. F., Lu, B. Y., 1994. Studies on insecticidal activity of the
9
essential oil from Clausena dunniana and its toxic component. Journal of South China
10
Agricultural
University
15,
17
56-60.
Description of Tables
Table 1. Essential oils main compounds
Table 2. Toxicity of nine compounds against three test insect species for 24 hours exposure
period
*means in the same column followed by the same letters are not significantly (P>0.05)
different as determined by
the LSD-test.
Table 3. Fumigant activity of the compounds against S. oryzae
*means in the same column followed by the same letters are not significantly (P>0.05)
different as determined by the LSD-test.
Table 4. Fumigant activity of the compounds against R. dominica
*means in the same column followed by the same letters are not significantly (P>0.05)
different as determined by the LSD-test.
Table 5. Fumigant activity of the compounds against T. castaneum
*means in the same column followed by the same letters are not significantly (P>0.05)
different as determined by the LSD-test.
18
Table 1.
Compounds
1,8-cineole
camphor
eugenol
linalool
carvacrol
thymol
borneol
bornyl-acetate
linalyl-acetate
Lavandula officinalis
Chaix.
lavender
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Rosmarinus officinalis
Linn
rosemary
+
+
Thymus vulgaris Linn.
thyme
+
+
19
Laurus nobilis Linn.
laurel
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Table 2.
Compounds
Dose
0,1 μl/720ml
Sitophilus oryzae
Mortality after 24 hours (%)
Rhyzopertha dominica
Tribolium castaneum
X  Std.E. *
X  Std.E. *
X  Std.E. *
eugenol
85.0  8.6ab
80.0  12.2a
12.5  6.29a
linalyl acetate
82.5  11.8ab
87.5  12.5a
0.0  0.0b
1,8-cineole
100.0  0.0a
97.5  2.5a
0.0  0.0b
carvacrol
72.5  8.5b
82.5  10.3a
0.0  0.0b
camphor
85.0  6.4ab
100.0  0.0a
0.0  0.0b
linalool
85.0  6.4ab
100.0  0.0a
0.0  0.0b
bornyl acetate
85.0  8.6ab
92.5  4.78a
0.0  0.0b
borneol
100.0  0.0a
92.5  4.78a
0.0  0.0b
thymol
100.0  0.0a
77.5  22.5a
0.0  0.0b
0.0  0.0c
0.0  0.0b
0.0  0.0b
Untreated
*
20
dose
μl/720ml)
% mortality S. oryzae*
Compounds
eugenol
0.1
1
10
50
100
0.1
1
10
50
100
0.1
1
10
50
0.1
1
10
50
0.1
1
10
50
0.1
1
0.1
85.0b
92.5ab
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
90.0a
95.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
d
a
y
7
6
day
5 day
4 day
3 day
2 day
1 day
Exposure
time
Table 3.
linalyl
acetate
82.5b
90.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
82.5b
92.5ab
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
92.5a
97.5a
100.0a
100.0a
95.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
95.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
97.5a
100.0a
97.5a
1,8
cineole
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
carvacrol
camphor
linalool
72.5b
87.5b
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
72.5b
92.5ab
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
85.0b
97.5a
100.0a
100.0a
92.5a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
97.5a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
85.0b
95.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
87.5b
97.5a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
90.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
95.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
97.5a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
85.0b
87.5ab
90.0ab
97.5a
97.5a
87.5b
90.0ab
92.5ab
97.5ab
100.0a
90.0a
95.0a
95.0a
100.0a
95.0a
97.5a
97.5a
100.0a
97.5a
97.5a
97.5a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
21
bornyl
acetate
85.0b
95.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
90.0a
95.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
97.5a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
97.5a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
97.5a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
borneol
thymol
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
1
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
borneol
thymol
92.5b
100.0a
100.0a
92.5b
100.0a
100.0a
92.5b
100.0a
100.0a
95.0b
100.0a
77.5b
100.0a
100.0a
77.5b
100.0a
100.0a
77.5b
100.0a
100.0a
80.0b
100.0a
*
Table 4.
dose
μl/720ml)
4
day
0.1
1
10
0.1
1
10
0.1
1
10
0.1
1
80.0b
100.0a
100.0a
82.5b
100.0a
100.0a
85.0b
100.0a
100.0a
85.0b
100.0a
linalyl
acetate
87.5ab
100.0a
100.0a
90.0a
100.0a
100.0a
90.0a
100.0a
100.0a
95.0a
100.0a
5
day
0.1
1
90.0a
100.0a
95.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
82.5b
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
97.5a
100.0a
95.0b
100.0a
80.0b
100.0a
6
day
0.1
1
95.0a
100.0a
95.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
82.5b
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
97.5a
100.0a
95.0b
100.0a
80.0b
100.0a
0.1
1
95.0a
100.0a
95.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
82.5b
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
95.0b
100.0a
82.5b
100.0a
3 day
2 day
1 day
Exposure
time
eugenol
7
day
% mortality R. dominica*
Compounds
1,8
cineole
97.5a
100.0a
100.0a
97.5a
100.0a
100.0a
97.5a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
carvacrol
camphor
linalool
82.5b
87.5ab
100.0a
82.5b
87.5ab
100.0a
82.5b
92.5ab
100.0a
82.5b
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
100.0a
bornyl
acetate
92.5b
100.0a
100.0a
92.5b
100.0a
100.0a
92.5b
100.0a
100.0a
97.5a
100.0a
*
22
dose
μl/720ml)
% mortality T. castaneum*
Compounds
eugenol
0.1
1
10
50
100
0.1
1
10
50
100
0.1
1
10
50
100
0.1
1
10
50
100
0.1
1
10
50
100
0.1
12,5b
12,5b
13,0b
13,0b
17,5a
12,5b
12,5b
13,0b
13,0b
20,0a
12,5b
17,5ab
17,5ab
22,5ab
25,0a
15,0b
20,0ab
20,0ab
25,0a
27,5a
17,5b
25,0ab
25,0ab
35,0a
37,5a
20,0b
d
a
y
6
5 day
4 day
3 day
2 day
1 day
Exposure
time
Table 5.
linalyl
acetate
0,0b
0,0b
0,0b
0,0b
12,5a
0,0c
0,0c
7,5abc
10,0ab
12,5a
0,0b
12,5ab
12,5ab
15,0ab
17,5a
0,0b
12,5ab
12,5ab
22,5a
30,0a
0,0b
12,5ab
22,5a
25,0a
30,0a
0,0b
1,8
cineole
0,0b
0,0b
0,0b
2,5b
17,5a
0,0b
0,0b
0,0b
5,0b
27,5a
0,0b
0,0b
2,5b
5,0b
37,5a
0,0b
0,0b
2,5b
10,0b
42,5a
0,0b
0,0b
2,5b
10,0b
50,0a
0,0b
carvacrol
0,0b
7,5ab
12,5ab
15,0ab
20,0a
5,0b
12,5ab
17,5ab
20,0a
20,0a
5,0b
12,5ab
20,0ab
25,0a
25,0a
5,0b
17,5ab
25,0a
27,5a
30,0a
7,5c
17,5b
25,0ab
32,5a
37,5a
7,5c
23
camphor
0,0b
0,0b
0,0b
2,5b
12,5a
0,0b
0,0b
0,0b
5,0ab
12,5a
0,0b
0,0b
0,0b
5,0b
25,0a
0,0b
0,0b
2,5b
10,0b
40,0a
0,0b
0,0b
2,5b
10,0b
45,0a
0,0b
linalool
0,0b
0,0b
2,5b
2,5b
12,5a
0,0b
0,0b
5,0b
5,0b
25,0a
0,0b
2,5b
5,0b
5,0b
32,5a
0,0b
5,0b
5,0b
7,5b
52,5a
0,0b
5,0b
5,0b
7,5b
57,5a
0,0b
bornyl
acetate
0,0a
0,0a
0,0a
2,5a
5,0a
0,0b
0,0b
0,0b
2,5b
17,5a
0,0b
2,5b
2,5b
5,0b
17,5a
2,5b
2,5b
7,5b
7,5b
32,5a
5,0b
7,5b
7,5b
15,0b
40,0a
5,0b
borneol
0,0a
0,0a
0,0a
0,0a
0,0a
0,0b
0,0b
0,0b
0,0b
15,0a
0,0b
0,0b
0,0b
2,5b
15,0a
0,0b
0,0b
2,5b
7,5b
20,0a
0,0b
0,0b
2,5b
7,5b
25,0a
0,0b
thymol
0,0a
0,0a
0,0a
2,5a
5,0a
0,0b
0,0b
0,0b
2,5ab
7,5a
0,0b
0,0b
0,0b
5,0ab
7,5ab
0,0c
0,0c
0,0c
12,5b
22,5a
0,0c
0,0c
0,0c
12,5b
35,0a
0,0c
7 day
1
10
50
100
0.1
1
10
50
100
30,0ab
30,0ab
45,0a
50,0a
20,0b
30,0ab
30,0ab
52,5a
57,5a
17,5ab
27,5a
30,0a
30,0a
0,0b
17,5ab
27,5a
30,0a
37,5a
0,0b
2,5b
10,0b
57,5a
0,0c
0,0c
2,5c
12,5b
92,5a
22,5b
30,0ab
40,0a
50,0a
7,5c
27,5b
30,0ab
47,5a
55,0a
*
24
0,0b
5,0b
10,0b
57,5a
0,0c
0,0c
5,0bc
10,0b
70,0a
5,0b
5,0b
7,5b
72,5a
0,0b
5,0b
7,5b
7,5b
77,5a
7,5b
10,0b
20,0b
52,5a
5,0b
7,5b
10,0b
20,0b
57,5a
0,0b
2,5b
7,5b
30,0a
0,0b
0,0b
2,5b
7,5b
30,0a
0,0c
0,0c
12,5b
40,0a
0,0c
0,0c
0,0c
12,5b
50,0a