Semester Two Final Exam Study Guide – Biology
This study guide is to help you organize and prepare for the final exam. Remember that you are responsible
for all material learned during lab and for all of the reading you were assigned. Please review all of the
material you have been assigned in class.
Chapter 12 DNA and RNA Learning Objectives
 Explain the relationship between genes and DNA
Describe the overall structure of the DNA molecule
 Explain the process of transformation
 Interpret the evidence that Watson and Crick used to help them create their model of DNA
 Understand the timeline and events involved in discovering the role of DNA
 Describe what a double helix is
 Explain the relationship between DNA and chromosomes
 Explain DNA replication
 Describe the relationship between DNA and proteins
 Explain the roles of the three types of RNA
 Describe the process of transcription
 Explain what a codon is
 Describe the process of translation
 Explain point mutations, frameshift mutations and chromosomal mutations
 Describe how most eukaryotic genes are controlled
Chapter 13 Genetic Engineering Learning Objectives
 Explain what selective breeding is and describe the purpose of it
 Explain why animal/plant breeders may try to induce mutations
 Describe how scientists can make changes to DNA
 Explain how DNA is extracted from a cell
 Describe how large DNA molecules are cut into smaller fragments
 Describe how DNA fragments are separated and analyzed
 Describe what happens during cell transformation
 Explain how you can determine if a transformation has been successful
 Describe what a plasmid is and what it is used for
 Explain what a transgenic organism is and how they can be useful to humans
 Describe the process of cloning and some of the practical applications of cloned plants/animals
Chapter 15 Darwin’s Theory of Evolution Learning Objectives
 Describe Darwin’s theory and why it was somewhat controversial at the time
 Explain why natural selection acts on the phenotype rather than the genotype of an organism.
 Explain what natural variation is and describe how that natural variation occurs
 Describe what artificial selection is
 Explain how evolution occurs by means of natural selection
 Describe how new mutations are constantly being generated in a gene pool
 Explain that variation within a species increases the likelihood that at least some members of a
species will survive under changed environmental conditions
 Explain what Darwin meant by the term “survival of the fittest”
 Explain what descent with modification means
 Describe the evidence that Darwin used to support his theory of evolution
Chapter 16 Evolution of Populations Learning Objectives
 Describe the main sources of variation in a population
 Explain what determines the numbers of phenotypes for a given trait
 Explain the five conditions for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium in a population and why these
conditions are not likely to appear in nature
 Describe what a gene pool is
 Explain the difference between a single-gene and polygenic trait
 Describe how natural selection affects single-gene and polygenic traits
 Describe what happens when there is genetic drift in a population
 Explain the factors that are involved in the formation of a new species
 Describe the isolating mechanisms that can result in the formation of a new species
 Explain how the conditions on the Galapagos islands resulted in speciation
 Describe how to analyze fossil evidence with regard to biological diversity, episodic speciation,
and mass extinction
Chapter 35 The Nervous System Learning Objectives
 Explain how the body maintains homeostasis
 Describe the main structures and functions of the human organ systems
 Explain how the nervous system mediates communication between different parts of the body and
the body's interactions with the environment.
 Describe the functions of the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system
 Explain the functions of the two divisions of the peripheral nervous system
 Describe the functions of the nervous system and the role of neurons in transmitting
electrochemical impulses
 Describe the roles of sensory neurons and motor neurons.
Chapter 37 Circulatory and Respiratory Systems
 Describe how the complementary activity of the circulatory and respiratory systems provides cells
with oxygen and nutrients and removes toxic waste products such as carbon dioxide.
 Identify the structures of the circulatory system, including the three kinds of blood vessels
 Describe the path of blood flow through the heart and body
 Identify the structures of the heart
 Explain what blood pressure is
 Describe some common disorders of the circulatory system
 Explain the function of each type of blood cell
 Describe the path pf air through the respiratory system.
 Identify the structures of the respiratory system
 Explain what breathing is and how it is controlled
Chapter 40 The Immune System and Disease
 Describe the role of the skin in providing nonspecific defenses against infection.
 Explain the role of antibodies in the body's response to infection.
Explain how vaccination protects an individual from infectious diseases.
Identify and explain the important differences between bacteria and viruses with respect to their
requirements for growth and replication, the body's primary defenses against bacterial and viral
infections, and effective treatments of these infections.
 Explain why an individual with a compromised immune system (for example, a person with
AIDS) may be unable to fight off and survive infections by microorganisms that are usually
benign.
 Describe the roles of phagocytes, B-lymphocytes, and T-lymphocytes in the immune system.
 Explain what causes disease in humans
 Describe how infectious disease is transmitted
 Identify some of the drugs that are used to fight and treat infectious diseases
 Explain what the body’s non-specific defenses against pathogens are
 Describe what immunity is and explain the different kinds of immunity
 Identify some of the common immune system disorders
 Explain what an autoimmune disease is and provide examples
 Describe what a retrovirus is and how it works to infect and organism