A MAN ON THE BLACK SEA COAST
Ruben D. Kos’yan
The Southern Branch of the P.P. Shirshov Institute of Oceanology,
Russian Academy of Sciences. Gelendzhik-7, 353467, RUSSIA.
E-mail: rkosyan@hotmail.com
The studies of sea coasts have been attracting considerable interest of scientists working on
various theoretical and practical problems. This particular zone has been a long-standing object of
economic development. Ports and various hydraulic works have been located here, oil and gas
fields have been explored and developed, building materials have been mined. The coastal zone
hosts agricultural lands, railways and highways. The coastal zone has been widely used for
recreation purposes. Economic activity in the coastal zone has made its study the primary practical
task.
Being a part of the Mediterranean, the Black Sea has played an important role in
geographical studies since the ancient times.
Brave and experienced Phoenicia sailors had travelled to the Black Sea since XVI century
B.C. traded with local people. However they did not leave any written notes concerning their
voyages or the sea itself. In VIII century B.C. the Greeks were in search of new lands, and during
the last decades of this century they had entered the Black Sea via Bosporus. They travelled to the
North, where they discovered the mouths of Istros (the Danube), Tyras (the Dniester), and
Borysthenes (the Dnieper), and to the East - along Asia Minor and Caucasian coast which they
assumed to be the edge of the World. The Greeks discovered the Crimean Peninsula and the Sea of
Azov.
Their first impression of the Black Sea was unfavorable. In comparison with the Aegean
Sea it seemed too stormy and cold. And besides, its shores were inhibited with unknown tribes.
Several centuries later the Greeks got to know the Black Sea much better and re-named it in Pontos
Euxenos (Hospitable Sea) and established the first colonies on its shore. In his "History" Herodotos
(484 - 425 B.C.) provided a full account of the geographical discoveries of the Greeks in Pontos
Euxenos, though his descriptions sometimes contained naive and even fantastic data. Another
description of Pontos and its coasts was presented by Roman scientist Plinius Secundus (1st century
A.D.) in his "Natural History". Ptolemaios (2nd cent. A.D.) devoted a manuscript to the Pontos, in
which the geographical position of most important cities, river mouths, capes, etc. was given. A
map could be easily drawn on the base of these data. Greek geographer Arrianos Flavii (about 95 175 A.D.) had travelled across the Black Sea in 134 A.D. and also gave its description.
In Middle Ages the name "Pontos Euxenos" was changed for "the Black Sea". The new
period of the Black Sea coastal zone development began with appearance of the first Slavonic
settlements. Russian sailors were especially persistent in research of the Black Sea. On their vessels
they had reached Byzantium and began trading with it. Commercial interests and repeated military
actions against Byzantium for the dominance in the Black Sea forced them to look for suitable
harbors and explore river mouths, shoals, and capes. Apart from Russians, only Italians
demonstrated profound interest in the Black Sea coasts. During two centuries Italian Republics of
Venice and Genoa were competing over the dominance in the Black Sea. In 13th century the
Genoeses founded their first colonies on the northern coasts of the Black Sea.
Capture of the Black Sea coast by Tartars and later by Turks had closed the access to the
Black Sea for other countries. In 16th century the powerful Osman fleet controlled nearly the entire
Mediterranean basin. After downfall of Osman supremacy, all the countries of the Black Sea basin
got free access to the sea.
The systematic exploration of the Black Sea and its coasts began in 19th century. The
French-Russian expedition of 1820 made the description of the Black Sea coasts. In 1825-1836 a
special expedition headed by Ye.P.Mangarini mapped the Black Sea coasts and that of the Sea of
Azov in great detail. This permitted to publish the first Atlas of the coast in 1842.
A great contribution to the Black Sea coast research was made by Russian oceanographer
Admiral S.O.Makarov who had studied the two-layer currents of Bosporus. The results obtained by
Russian biologists P.S.Pallas, L.V.Rainhard, and S.A.Zernov deserve special mentioning. They
made it an accepted knowledge that the Black Sea flora and fauna was rich and versatile despite the
complete absence of living organisms at greater depths. Absence of oxygen and hydrosulfuric
poisoning of sea water below 150 m depth were first revealed by Russian scientist N.I.Andrusov in
the 19th century during his research of the Black Sea origin and geological history.
Soviet geologists Acad. A.D.Arkhangelsky and Acad. N.M.Strakhov were also studying the
geological history of the Black Sea. In the 30-ties of the 20th century they made the first
generalization of the Black Sea stratigraphy and Cenozoic geology. Since the 40-ties the
hydrological and hydrochemical studies of standard cross-sections have become regular. Since the
late 50-ties the Black Sea bottom geomorphology and bed sediment, have been studied
systematically with the use of geological and geographical methods. The seismic survey of the
Earth crust structure has also been accomplished. Long-term investigation of the Black sea coastal
dynamics and morphology were headed by the Soviet oceanologist V.P.Zenkovich. The theory of
sea coast dynamics has been developed.
Along with Russian scientists, researchers of other countries, primarily of those bordering
on the Black Sea, have also been dealing with the problems of the coastal zone development.
Scientific-Research Institutes have been opened in these countries to lead the complex research of
the Black Sea. In 90-ties the joint research has been initiated. Joint expeditions and experimental
studies have been accomplished, global international projects have been realized. As a result, vast
material has been accumulated on the principal features of the Black Sea basin.
The Black Sea is a typical inner sea. It washes the Eastern coast of Balkan Peninsula in the
West, Eastern European plain in the North, the Caucasian coast and Kolkhida lowland in the East,
and Asia Minor coast in the South. The length of shoreline, according to various authors, is 4020 4100 km.
The Black Sea is a continental sea of the Atlantic Ocean. Bosporus connects it with the Sea
of Marmara, which in its turn is connected with the Mediterranean by Dardanelles. In the North the
Kerch Strait connects the Black Sea with the Sea of Azov; the latter can be regarded as a shallow
bay of the first one. The area of the Black Sea is 420325 km (462000 km together with the Sea of
Azov). The northern point of the Black Sea (460 33' N) is at Berezan Liman, close to Ochakov, the
oeastern (410 42' E) - between Batumi and Poti, the southern (400 56' N) is at Giresun, to the west
of Trabzon, and the western (270 27' E) - in Burgas Bay.
The maximal length of the Black Sea along 420 30' parallel between Burgas and Caucasian
coast is 1149 km. Maximal width along Ochakov - Eregli (Asia Minor) line is 611 km, minimal
width between Sarych Cape in Crimean Peninsula and Kerempe Cape in Asia Minor is 263 km.
The depth of the Black Sea depression increases to the south and reaches its maximum of 2245 m,
the average depth being 1271 m. The Black Sea holds 537 thousand km3 of water.
The shoreline of the Black Sea is rather smooth, only the North-Western and Northern
coasts being rugged. Two major bays - Oddesky and Karkinitsky are situated here. The largest bay
of the Caucasian coast is Novorossiysk Bay. Sinop Bay, Samsun Harbor, and Vona Bay are the
largest along the Turkish coast. The Bulgarian coast has two major bays - Burgas and Varna. There
are few peninsulas along the Black Sea coast, the largest of them being the Crimean. Islands are
also rare, the largest ones being Zmeiny (Fidinisi, in Sulina inlet of the Danube), Berezan (in the
liman of the same name), and Kefken (92 km to the East of Bosporus and to the North of Kefken
Cape).
The Black Sea is fed by European and Asian rivers. The area of the Black Sea watershed is
about 25000002 km . Three main elements are recognized in the Black Sea bottom relief: shelf,
continental slope, and deep-water depression. The shelf begins at the modern water edge and ends
at 90-110 m depth, locally (to the South of Sevastopol and Yalta) - at 140-160 m depth. The shelf
occupies 24% of the Black Sea area, the continental slope - 40% of it. The depression bottom,
delineated by 2000 m isobath, occupies 36% of sea area.The modern coast of the Black Sea is
divided between Turkey, Bulgaria, Romania, Russia, Ukraine, and Georgia.
The length of Turkish coast section between Bulgarian - Turkish border (the Rezovska
River mouth) in the South-West and Turkish - Georgian border (the Chorokha River mouth) in the
South is slightly below 1400 km. The Bulgarian Black Sea coast (over 300 km) is subdivided into
two sections - Northern and Southern ones. Northern section lies between the Romanian border and
Emine Cape, the Southern one - between Emine Cape and the Turkish border. Romanian coast
section is 225 km long - between Ukrainian and Bulgarian borders. The ex-USSR coast section is
about 2300 km long. Only 475 km of this section belongs to Russia - between Kerch Strait and the
Psou River mouth. The major Russian coastal cities are Anapa, Novorossiysk, Gelendzhik, Tuapse,
Sochi, and Adler.
310 km of the Eastern Black Sea coast between the Psou River mouth and the Turkish
border belongs to Georgia.
Nearly 1500 km of the Black Sea coast between the Romanian border and the Kerch Strait
belong to Ukraine. This coast is subdivided into two sections: Western- Black-Sea (Odessa Skadovsky), and Crimean.
Until recently, coast protection against wave erosion and rational economic development of
the coastal zone have been the major targets. During the last decades the negative impact of modern
civilization on the Black Sea nature has become evident, especially because of its intracontinental
position. Ecological safety of the Sea has become the major problem. At present, special studies of
the coastal zone are usually combined with complex ecological investigation.
The industrial development of coastal countries, growth of urban population, expansion of
resort complexes result in progressively greater pollution of sea water with industrial and domestic
wastes. Increased volumes of oil shipment, more intensive navigation, underwater oil field
development cannot but affect the Black Sea water, bottom, and coastal zone purity. Agricultural
(pesticides, fertilizers) and industrial waste waters are especially harmful. Nearly all rivers flowing
in the Black Sea are more or less polluted. Among the poisonous materials discharged in the sea,
compounds of certain heavy metals (Pb, Hg, Zn, Ni), cyanides, and arsenic compounds are
especially toxic. Recently, organic compounds including phenol, creosol, and detergents have been
detected in sea water. Due to discharge of significant amounts of synthetic detergents foamy spots
have appeared on water surface.
Organic pollutants include sewage and domestic waste waters, wastes of woodworking,
sugar, and other industries. Accumulation of organic matter disturbs oxygen balance of water and
may kill numerous living organisms. Municipal wastes containing pathogenic bacteria and
helminite eggs are hazardous for people. Control data show that natural run-off annually provides
the Black Sea with 2.8 thousand t of total nitrogen, 1.5 - of ammonia nitrogen, 0.9 - of
petrochemicals, 0.7 of total phosphorus, 0.6 of copper, and 0.009 thousand t of iron.
Content of heavy metals in the open sea has thus far remained within the range of ultimate
permissible concentrations (UPC). However, this fact cannot be regarded as permanent favor, as
their accumulation in hydrobionts and especially in bed sediment is well in progress. The impact of
chemical pollution on the Black Sea ecosystem can hardly be evaluated quantitatively. However,
negative aftereffects are noticeable in hydrobionts. Accumulation of chemical pollutants has been
detected in fishery areas, especially in those of highest trophic level. Thus, the analysis of frozen
meat of shark showed nearly 13-fold elevation over UPC of the total amount of DDT, its
metabolites, and PHB.
The necessity for treatment of industrial and municipal waste waters has posed numerous
serious problems before the countries washed by the Black Sea. Monitoring of waste water
distribution in the coastal zone is of primary importance. Studies of the factors controlling the
waste water distribution, such as temporal and permanent currents, dominating winds and waves,
water measure stratification are also necessary. The studies have shown that waste waters should be
discharged at 100-150 m depth, so that the organic matter could mineralize completely or nearly
completely before the polluted waters reach the surface layer.
Recreation and tourism may soon become more important than the industrial development
of the coastal zone. The Black Sea water is less saline if compared with other famous sea resorts,
which makes bathing more pleasant. And besides, absence of tides, predatory or poisonous marine
animals makes this sea especially attractive. Natural climatic conditions (a large number of sunny
days, abundant mineral water sources, and picturesque landscape) also favor resort development.
All the above permitted to turn the Black Sea coastal zone into an international resort and tourist
center. To develop tourism, sea water and coast are to be kept clean and safe. That means that the
economic activity must provide for preservation of natural environment. This accounts for special
attention paid to improvement of ecological situation and to protection of coastal landscapes. And
still the safety measures taken during the last decades, short-term and long-term tactics of nature
preservation, as well as governmental mechanisms of control over nature and society interaction
remain inadequate.
Multi-year attempts to solve another important problem of the Black Sea coast, namely
protection of coastal landscapes against erosion and washout, have also proved inefficient. New
coastal areas are being developed, which makes the coast protection a pressing problem. In his
quest to develop the coastal zone, man often overlooks the aftereffects of his activity. Building of
port structures, concreting of coastal slopes, regulation of river run-off, removal of beach and
channel sediment, pollution of coastal waters and bed sediment with industrial and municipal
wastes, and many other factors disturb the natural equilibrium. Some types of technogenic impact
have become a real disaster. Even a minor interference is enough to destroy a beach, after /which
the exposed shore becomes an easy prey for waves. Recently, long sections of the Caucasian Black
Sea shoreline have retreated by tens of meters. Thus, in Poti region a densely populated coastal area
about 800 m wide has been washed out during the past 70 years. The process of sea coast erosion is
often irreversible, so that in time any man-made structures might be destructed.
Various hydraulic works have been used in different countries to protect sea coasts against
wave action. These structures include dams, dikes, supporting sea walls, underwater and abovewater breakwaters, spur ridges, and wave-suppressing stone fillings. There are many coastprotecting structures along the Crimean and Caucasian Black Sea coasts. There is not a single
natural coast section between Tuapse and Adler. Both national and international engineering
science has some examples of successful coast protection with hydraulic works, but failures are
much more common. That is why the traditional approach to coast protection raises more and more
opposition every year. Rather than solving the problem this approach leads to a blind alley. Mass
construction of spurs along the Caucasian Black Sea coast has caused more harm than benefit.
Spurs were placed even in the areas of faint currents. Sometimes the situation becomes absurd, like
it happened in Gelendzhik Bay, where several tens of spurs are being built. This bay has been
protected from open sea waves by nature itself, and besides, sediment flows are lacking.
Designs of coast-protecting systems have erroneously been based on the assumption of
rigidly determined relationship between coastal processes. The coastal dynamics is also controlled
by adjoining subsystems (alluvial solid load, wave regime, etc.), which transform in time following
their own rules, resulting in formation of various coast types. Because of the above reasons a
reliable prediction of operation mode of coast-protecting structures is hardly possible. In spite of
numerous failures the attempts to conquer the sea with hydraulic works are still made. A more
reasonable way of coast protection must be found. Study, protection and preservation of sea coasts
should be based on complex geographical approach. The necessity for this transfer is evident from
the dilemma: to waste large amounts of money on hydraulic works and to destroy the coast
irreversibly, or to take the route suggested by nature itself.
The principal concept of this approach to coast protection is in restoration of natural
development of coasts, conversion of destructive wave force into creative force spent only on mass
reciprocating motion of beach-forming sediment within the wave field. Location of any "foreign"
objects, differing from natural ones in physico-mechanical and hydrodynamical properties, in the
coastal zone is regarded as a peculiar "surgical interference" with the natural processes of coast
formation. Such an interference may be justified only in cases of emergency.
Recent positive tendencies in preservation and restoration of the Black Sea coastal
landscapes, qualitatively new approach to solution of these problems result from agreement
between the practical measures and theoretical concepts of natural sciences: morphodynamics of
sea and ocean coasts, and lithodynamics of the coastal zone. This approach to of great practical
value both for coast protection and for further improvement of general nature preserving
mechanisms.