Sexual Harassment at School
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Reports of sexual harassment are increasing among junior and senior high school students.
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Girls are more likely than boys to be sexually harassed by their schoolmates and they are more upset by it.
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Schools are now legally obligated to protect students from severe and pervasive harassment by other students.
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More female than male students experience sexual harassment on campus. Most incidents involve subtle forms of harassment, and most are perpetrated by other students.
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Ethnic and sexual minority students are more likely to experience harassment than are other students.
Sexual Harassment in the Workplace
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It is estimated that up to half of employed women will experience sexual harassment. Sexist remarks and jokes are common forms of harassment; sexual coercion is relatively rare.
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Women in blue-collar occupations and the military are more likely to be targets of harassment than other women.
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This might be due to the high prevalence of both the male gender stereotype and male-related physical traits in these fields.
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According to sex-role spillover theory, sexual harassment occurs because men respond to females in the workplace as women rather than as workers. Power theory states that harassment is used by more powerful individuals either to gain sexual favors or to reinforce their position of greater power.
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Most targets of sexual harassment use informal strategies for dealing with the harassment, such as ignoring it or asking the harasser to stop. They rarely file formal complaints or seek legal redress.
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Numerous negative outcomes can stem from sexual harassment.
Stalking
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Stalking refers to unwanted and repeated actions toward an individual that induces fear or concern for safety.
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Most stalkers are male and most victims are female.
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Stalking can produce harmful psychological effects.
Violence Against Girls
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The incidence of child sexual abuse may run as high as one in four girls and one in six boys. Most abuse is committed by a relative or family friend (usually male).
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Sexual abuse can have a devastating impact on the physical and mental health of children, both immediately and in the long term.
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School-based sexual-abuse prevention programs may help children avoid and report abuse. Psychotherapy can help abused children and women heal.
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Countries with strong preferences for boys show elevated rates of abortion, infanticide, and neglect of female children.
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Many girls and young women around the world have been lured into sexual slavery.
Dating Violence
Rape
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Substantial numbers of teenagers experience violence in their dating relationships. More males than females report being victims of such violence.
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An estimated one-quarter of women experience rape, much of it perpetrated by acquaintances.
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Physical aggressiveness, hostility toward women, gender-stereotypical attitudes, and a history of family violence differentiate sexually aggressive men from other men.
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Alcohol consumption increases the risk of sexual coercion and rape.
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Rape victims can experience a variety of emotional and health problems.
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Evolutionary, feminist, and social learning theories attempt to account for rape. Although some support for all three has been reported, there are many criticisms of evolutionary theory.
Intimate Partner Violence
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Up to one in four women in the United States are victims of intimate partner violence each year.

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Intimate partner violence occurs in sexual minority and heterosexual relationships and across ethnic groups, although it is more frequent among Blacks than Whites.
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Major risk factors for both perpetrators and victims of intimate partner violence are a history of family violence and alcohol and drug abuse.
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Numerous physical and psychological problems can result from victimization, including physical injuries, reproductive difficulties, lower self-esteem, anxiety, and depression.
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Financial problems and fear of the perpetrator are the primary reasons for remaining in an abusive relationship.
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Feminist and social learning theories help explain intimate partner violence.
Elder Abuse
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Elder abuse can have physical, psychological, financial, and neglect dimensions. Between 1 and 2 million older adults in the United
States are affected, but few cases are reported.
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The typical victim is a woman age 75 or older, who lives with a caregiver. The typical abuser is a middle-aged son who has mental, alcohol, or drug problems.
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The following are essential in order to combat elder abuse: educating professionals and the public; reporting abuse cases; passing victims’ rights laws; and forming support groups.