TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I
NOTE TO STUDENTS ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- II
Part One: The Background Problem: Post-metaphysical Diversity = Confusion, Banality, Drift and
“isms” of exclusion vs. The Normative Structure of a Profession
I.
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO APPLIED ETHICS & SOCIAL PLURALISM ------------- 1
1.
A FOUNDATION FOR DISCUSSING PHILOSOPHICAL ETHICS --------------------------------------------- 1
The Background Shapes The Foreground --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1
Communication Requires Shared Procedural Knowledge -------------------------------------------------------- 4
The Example Of Temple Grandin ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 6
Self-Critical Dialogue Helps To Balance Perspectives ---------------------------------------------------------- 11
Humans Are Story-Telling Animals -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 13
Metaphors Facilitate Communication ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 17
2.
“THE GOOD OLD DAYS” OF TRIBAL ETHICS ----------------------------------------------------------------- 20
Levels of Abstraction and Justification ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 22
3.
TODAY’S WORLD OF SOCIAL PLURALISM ------------------------------------------------------------------- 29
4.
A SPECIAL VOCABULARY DEFINES THE MORAL POINT OF VIEW------------------------------------ 33
Six Possible Principles Of Western Morality --------------------------------------------------------------------- 36
Virtue Ethics, Another Possibility ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 37
5.
METAETHICS AND THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN JUSTIFICATION AND APPLICATION -------- 39
6.
REFERENCES -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 44
.
II.
CHAPTER TWO: MORAL AGENTS, SITUATIONAL CONTROL, & PROFESSIONALISM ---- 47
1.
MORAL AGENCY IN APPLIED ETHICS --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 47
A Model Decision Procedure --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 48
Background Definition of Moral Agency -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 50
Moral Agency Versus Situational Control ------------------------------------------------------------------ 52
Example: The Zimbardo Prison Experiment -------------------------------------------------------------- 53
Example: The Third Wave Experiment: duty for duty’s sake can be dangerous -------------------- 56
Combining Empirical Research With Moral Prescriptions ----------------------------------------------------- 61
2.
A NORMATIVE DEFINITION OF PROFESSIONALISM-------------------------------------------------------- 64
Background: The Structure of a Profession? --------------------------------------------------------------------- 65
Origins Of 20th Century Professions ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 66
Four Criteria Of Traditional Professions -------------------------------------------------------------------- 68
Ideal Theory: Universal Morality and the Professional Code Of Ethics -------------------------------------- 71
Client/Professional Relationships ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 74
Implementation: Professional Practice and Discretionary Decisions ----------------------------------------- 76
Professional Practice Must Be Compatible With Morality ---------------------------------------------- 78
REFERENCES ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 80
3.
III.
CHAPTER THREE: MUDDLE, DRIFT, BANALITY, & SUBJECTIVISM VS. MORALITY ---- 82
1.
THE MORALITY OF MUDDLE -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 82
Reactions to Pluralism ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 83
Bigotry ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 84
Future Shock, Decidophobia, Cynicism & Nihilism ----------------------------------------------------- 85
Confusion Leads to Moral Drift ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 86
2.
THE SPECTER OF THE BANALITY OF EVIL -------------------------------------------------------------------- 90
Illustrations of the Banality of Evil -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 93
Example: The Greek Soldiers -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 93
Example: The Nazi Doctors ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 95
Administrative Evil Is Incompatible With Professionalism --------------------------------------------------- 97
The Virtue of Understanding -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 100
3.
MATTERS OF TASTE vs. MORAL VALUES ------------------------------------------------------------------- 102
Subjectivism: A Reductionist Metaethical Theory ------------------------------------------------------------ 102
Emotivism ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 104
Logical Characteristics of Public Morality --------------------------------------------------------------------- 106
The Logic of Moral Excuses ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 108
Conclusion ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 114
4. REFERENCES ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 115
PART TWO: THE SEARCH FOR TRANSCENDENT RATIONALITY -- EMPIRICAL AND
ANALYTIC STUDIES
IV.
CHAPTER FOUR: DESCRIPTIVE ETHICS: COGNITIVE AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT -- 118
1.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 118
Blending the Concrete and the Abstract ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 123
2.
MORAL DEVELOPMENT ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 125
Level I, The Preconventional -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 129
Level II, The Conventional ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 132
Level III, The Postconventional ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 136
Using the Developmental Model to Interpret Events ---------------------------------------------------------- 143
REFERENCES ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 149
3.
V.
CHAPTER FIVE: THE ROLE OF VOICE IN ETHICS WITH THE FOCUS ON
GENDERED INTERPRETATIONS OF MORALITY ----------------------------- 152
1.
THE PLURALITY OF VOICES VERSUS UNIVERSAL MORALITY --------------------------------------- 152
2.
THE FOCUS ON GENDER IN MORAL DEVELOPMENT ---------------------------------------------------- 157
The Traditional Men’s Orientation ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 158
The Women’s Orientation ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 160
Possible Causes of Gender Differences ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 161
A Mature Ethics Requires Both Genders ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 165
Development Improves Communication Between Voices: The Example of Race ----------------------- 167
Blending the Voice of Liberal Individualism with Communitarian Republicanism----------------------- 171
ADAM SMITH, A LIBERAL COMMUNITARIAN --------------------- ---------------------------------------- 175
Conclusion ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 183
REFERENCES ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 185
3.
4.
VI.
1.
CHAPTER SIX: METAETHICAL SEARCH FOR MORAL RATIONALITY ----------------------- 189
TRADITIONAL NATURALIST AND ABSOLUTIST METATHEORIES ---------------------------------- 189
The Cultural Relativist Reaction ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 192
The Need to Transcend Cultural Relativism ------------------------------------------------------------- 199
Moral Rationality ----------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------- 201
Postmodern Philosophy ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 203
Problems with Postmodern Particularism---------------------------------------------------------------- 205
Pluralism And Rationality ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 208
Rationality and Moral Emotions -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 210
Kantian Conditions for Rationality ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 213
Communicative Rationality --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 217
2.
REFERENCES --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 223
PART III. MORAL FOUNDATIONS AND CONCEPTS, SIX NORMATIVE
THEORIES AND APPLICATION STRATEGY
VII.
1.
CHAPTER SEVEN: AUTONOMY, ACCOUNTABILITY, & MORAL CHOICES ---------- ----- 226
AUTONOMY ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 226
Personal Autonomy is not Moral Autonomy ------------------------------------------------------------------ 227
2.
MORAL AUTONOMY ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 231
Moral Autonomy Entails Moral Accountability -------------------------------------------------------------- 233
The Need For Accountability Procedures --------------------------------------------------------------------- 235
Moral Autonomy And Human Virtues ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 239
Autonomy And Emotional Choice ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 242
Paternalistic Interventions --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 245
Moral Autonomy and Life Style Choice ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 247
The Autonomous Life and The Meaning of Life ----------------------------------------------------- 250
Universal Moral Meaning in the Golden Rule --------------------------------------------------------- 252
Summary ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 255
3. REFERENCES ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 257
VIII.
CHAPTER EIGHT: THE CONSEQUENTIALIST BACKGROUND VS NATURAL RIGHTS --260
1.
BACKGROUND: CONSEQUENTIALISTS NEED A THEORY OF VALUE ----------------------------- 260
Prudence: Strategic Reasoning ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 261
2.
ETHICAL EGOISM --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 263
Background: Personal Egoism is Not Ethical Egoism ------------------------------------------------------- 264
Psychological Egoism Is Not Ethical Egoism----------------------------------------------------------- 266
Problems with Ethical Egoism ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 267
Ideal Theory: The Enlightened Ethical Egoist’s Response---------------------------------------------------- 269
Implementation: Problems Remain ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 270
3.
UTILITARIANISM ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 272
Background: How to Interpret Decentered Pleasure ---------------------------------------------------------- 273
Ideal Theory: Impartial Benevolent Calculations of Utility ------------------------------------------------ 277
Implementation: Problems with Utilitarianism ---------------------------------------------------------------- 278
The Problem Of Justice ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 282
Nonconsequentialist Criticisms --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 284
4.
NATURAL RIGHTS THEORY ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 285
Background: Values in Nature ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 286
Ideal Theory: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 287
Implementation: Problems with the Natural Rights Theory ------------------------------------------------ 289
5. REFERENCES ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 292
IX.
CHAPTER NINE: NONCONSEQUENTIALIST ALTERNATIVES TO NATURAL RIGHTS
THEORY ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 293
1. SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 293
Background: Hume’s Empiricism vs. Rousseau’s Normative Prescriptions------------------------------- 294
John Rawls’ Explanation of the Logic of a Social Contract ------------------------------------------ 295
The Role of Qualitative Information --------------------------------------------------------------------- 298
Ideal Theory: Rawls’ Two Principles are Really Three ------------------------------------------------------ 299
Implementation: Problems with Rawls’ Social Contract Theory -------------------------------------------- 301
2.
DUTY ETHICS ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 304
Background: Autonomy and Pure Reason --------------------------------------------------------------------- 306
Ideal Theory: Rational Nature as an End in Itself and The Kingdom of Ends --------------------------- 309
Implementation: Too Abstract? Too Monological? The Family Example-------------------------------- 311
3.
HABERMAS AND DISCOURSE ETHICS ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 313
Background: The Nature of Communicative Discourse ----------------------------------------------------- 314
Communicative Rationality ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 315
Ideal Theory: The Practical Normative Implications of Communicative Discourse --------------------317
Implementation: The Justification of Discourse Ethics ------------------------------------------------------ 320
Summary ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 325
REFERENCES ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 325
4.
X. CHAPTER TEN: THEORY OF IMPLEMENTATION: THE BEST MEANS --------------------------- 328
1. BACKGROUND: THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ENDS AND MEANS ----------------------------- 328
2.
3.
The Way It Is ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 329
IDEAL THEORY: COMBINING THE EMPIRICAL AND THE PRESCRIPTIVE ---------------------- 331
Blending the Concrete with the Abstract --------------------------------------------------------------- 333
IMPLEMENTATION: MORAL AGENTS AND INSTITUTIONAL SETTINGS ------------------------ 337
4.
APPLIED ETHICAL REASONING USING A DECISION PROCEDURE---------------------------------- 339
Example: The Jurisprudence of Difference -------------------------------------------------------------------- 340
Background: General Dilemma ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 340
Ideal Theory, Other things being equal ---------------------------------------------------------------- 343
Implementation, All things considered ----------------------------------------------------------------- 345
Example: Contractual Dispute, Business or Professional? ------------------------------------------------- 351
Background: General Dilemma ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 352
Ideal Theory, Other things being equal --------------------------------------------------------------- 356
Implementation, All things considered ----------------------------------------------------------------- 357
5.
SUMMARY ON APPLICATION DISCOURSE ----------------------------------------------------------------- 360
The Practical Impact of a Course in Ethics ------------------------------------------------------------------- 362
6.
REFERENCES ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 363
XI. GLOSSARY OF KEY TERMS ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 366