WH-1 Prehistory Lecture 2: The Paleolithic, Mesolithic,
and Neolithic Eras
1. Part I: Essential Questions
A. What key event is responsible for the rise of mammalian life on
earth?
B. What is the evidence that it actually occurred?
C. What are the tool types that enable us to distinguish between the
Paleolithic, the Mesolithic, and the Neolithic Ages?
D. Do these remain reasonable and helpful concepts for
contextualizing prehistory?
II. Part 2: Classnotes and Original Source Material
Taxonomically, humans are members of the same family as the anthropoid (human-like) apes
(from the Greek o pronounced ho anthropos), and are also known as the "great"
apes. The above taxonomy is based on DNA comparisons; at this level we are more than 98%
similar to chimpanzees.
Humans (Homo sapiens sapiens) are classified as Hominoidae; included in this family are the
four great apes: chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), bonobo (Pan paniscus), gorilla (Gorilla
gorilla), and orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus) and the "lesser" apes: gibbons and siamangs. All
other primates are either monkeys or prosimians. The best available evidence suggests that the
Hominoids split off from the other primates (Old World monkeys, New World monkeys, and
prosimians) approximately 23 million years ago. However, new data is constantly refining our
understanding of when these various “splits” occurred.
Now, let’s begin examining the major divisions of prehistory,
focusing on the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolothic eras
during this lecturefollowed by the Bronze and the Iron Ages:
1) The time-honored three-tiered classification of the major
divisions of prehistory (STONE AGE, BRONZE AGE,
IRON AGE) was formulated in 1819 by CHRISTIAN
THOMSEN, director of the National Museum of
Denmark, as a way of classifying artifacts in the
museum’s collection. Thomsen’s divisions were
predicated on the assumption that Europe’s prehistoric
populations had PROGRESSED through these three
relatively well-defined stages of technological
development as evidenced by increased TOOL
SOPHISTICATION. However, archeological evidence
suggests that these transitions weren’t always quite so
clear cut, with many communities, for example, using
both STONE and BRONZE tools concurrently; how
would they be classified under Thomsen’s system?
However, these divisions are still very commonly used
and understood despite their issues, and so we will make
use of them for our purposes.
2) As we begin our examination of this issue, we cannot
ignore the role that at least one major GEOLOGICAL
occurrence played in making the rise of mammals
possible; this is the so-called KT EVENT, which occurred
approximately 65 million years ago (between the
Kretacious and the Tertiary eras in the earth’s geological
history). A small ASTEROID, about 6 miles across,
collided with earth in the area of the Yucatan Peninsula,
causing the MASS EXTINCTION of the dinosaurs and
allowing mammals to gain an evolutionary foothold on
the planet. Evidence for this is the very clearly observable
layer of the element IRIDIUM in the geologic stratum
corresponding to this time period; this element is found
only at very great depths in the earth’s crust and on
asteroids. Without the occurrence of the KT Event,
dinosaurs-who had survived for 120 million years prior to
it--might very well still be walking the earth today instead
of humans!
3) A bit of ETYMOLOGY first: the English suffix -LITHIC
comes from the GREEK  (pronounced “lee-thos”
the ENGLISH EQUIVALENT (Don’t say “In English it
means…” is STONE) whereas PALEOS  in Greek
to “Old” in English, transliterates to “Middle,”
and transliterates to “New.” Thus, the etymological
origin of PALEOLITHIC, MESOLITHIC, and
NEOLITHIC is Greek.
4) The PALEOLITHIC ERA (Old Stone Age
corresponds closely to the Pleistocene (“Most Recent”)
geologic era, and is the EARLIEST period of human
development and the LONGEST phase of human history.
Depending upon the location, it began between 3,000,000
and 300,000 years ago and ended between 40,000 and
10,000 years ago and was followed by the MESOLITHIC
(orMiddle Stone Age and the NEOLITHIC
( or New Stone Age.
5) The evolution of the human species from ape-like
ancestors—defined mainly by the ability of the creature
to walk ERECT as evidenced archeologically by the
placement of the FORAMEN MAGNUM, occurred
during the Paleolithic period. The divisions are the
LOWER, MIDDLE, and UPPER, based again on TOOL
sophistication.
6) LOWER PALEOLITHIC: Earliest stones believed to
have been used as choppers (EOLITHS) made during the
“dawn” (Greek EO) of humanity found in Olduvai Gorge
in Tanzania were possibly made over 1,000,000 years ago
by our AUSTRALOPITHECINE (e.g., “Lucy”) ancestors.
Very primitive tools are often indistinguishable from
natural stone formations; this poses special challenges for
paleontologists. HOMO ERECTUS (100,000 to 500,000
years ago) was found in Europe, Africa, and Asia. They
were better toolmakers than Australopithecus—clearly
chipped/flaked stone to create a sharp cutting edge. Hand
axes were common among these early hunters-gatherers,
and so they actually fashioned tools using the COUP-DEPOING technique instead of relying heavily on naturally
occurring formations.
7) MIDDLE PALEOLITHIC: This period was marked by
the emergence of NEANDERTHAL MAN, a
magnificently ADAPTED hominid species which lived
approximately 40,000 to 100,000 years ago. These cavedwelling hunters used FIRE, made sophisticated flaked
stone tools and created bone implements (e.g., needles)
suggesting a primitive wardrobe of furs and skins.
Cranial capacity of 1600 cc—about 200 more than
contemporary man. Possibly practiced primitive
religions, as the dead were painted before burial. One of
their great ADAPTATIONS was the ratio of their skin
surface area to muscle density; big muscles and relatively
small skin surface area enabled them to conserve BODY
HEAT during the Ice Age. When the Ice Age RECEDED,
this adaptation against the cold no longer offered the
Neanderthal a SELECTIVE ADVANTAGE relative to
longer-armed competitors who could kill from a distance
instead of just close up (Neanderthal skeletons for this
reason contain many fractures resembling the injuries of
contemporary BULL RIDERS), and they eventually—
possible through war and interbreeding with CRO
MAGNON populations, became EXTINCT.
8) UPPER PALEOLOITHIC: The height of the Paleolithic
era. Here we see the emergence of the CRO-MAGNON
populations (chief ancestor of modern man) and the final
disappearance of the NEANDERTHALS along with the
emergence of more advanced human cultures. Communal
hunting and fishing arises, belief systems focusing on
MAGIC and the supernatural. The first human-made
shelters were built, clothing was sewn, and clay and cave
art was created. Tools and weapons included finely
fashioned blades (flint & obsidian) and spearheads,
anvils, saws, javelins and spears. Personal ornamentation
(i.e., jewelry) appears (e.g., bone, horn, and ivory
necklaces, pins, etc.).
9) MESOLITHIC ERA: (Middle Stone Age): intermediate
period of human stone-age development that occurred
between the end of the PALEOLITHIC and the
beginning of the NEOLITHIC period. Its onset coincided
with the end of the last glaciation (circa 8000-- 10,000
years ago).
10)
European Mesolithic cultures persisted until about
3000 BCE, whereas Mesolithic cultures in the Middle
East developed between 9000 and 6000 BCE (again,
remember that these dates change frequently as new
evidence is discovered, and that within geographic areas
there is still much VARIABILITY)
11)
Mesolithic cultures adapted to changing
environments (e.g., prey disappearance caused by
GLACIAL RETREAT, forestation in Europe, and the
appearance of DESERTS in Africa) by implementing
many kinds of hunting, fishing, and food gathering
strategies. Hunting and fishing settlements appeared
along rivers and on lake shores to harvest fish and
mollusks.
12)
The most defining product of the Mesolithic stone
industry was the MICROLITH—a chipped stone tool
that is typically smaller and more delicate than those
created during the late Paleolithic period. Steady tool
and weapon improvements characterized this age of
transition from HUNTING to AGRICULTURE—pottery
was fired and the bow came into use. Any of these
advances could have come to a Mesolithic culture via
contact with early NEOLITHIC civilizations.
13)
The Neolithic Era
In one sense, all human history hinges upon two revolutions; the
Neolithic passage from hunting to agriculture, and the modern
passage from agriculture to industry; no other revolutions have
been quite as real or basic as these (Durant, Our Oriental
Heritage, pg. 99).
…the surviving record of Stone Age advances is impressive
enough: Paleolithic tools, fire, and art; Neolithic agriculture,
animal breeding, weaving, pottery, building, transport, and
medicine, and the definite domination and wider peopling of the
earth by the human race. All the bases had been laid; everything
had been prepared for the historic civilizations except (perhaps)
metals, writing, and the state. Let men find a way to record their
thoughts and achievements, and thereby transmit them more
securely across generations, and civilization would begin
(Durant, Our Oriental Heritage, pg. 102).
14)
The NEOLITHIC (“New Stone”) Era began around
10,000 BCE in Asia and 5000 BCE Europe); during
contemporary times the term AGRICULTURAL
REVOLUTION has often been used synonymously with
Neolithic Era.
15)
And so, the distinguishing features include (a)
development of AGRICULTURE, including
PASTORALISM, which is the selective breeding of
animals. With this advancement, the earth could now
support a larger human population since food could be
replenished by farming/breeding and hunting; Neolithic
rock carvings showed people using ploughs. Also, no
longer did the sheep have to be killed to obtain its hide for
covering; instead it could be sheared regularly and thus
provide garments for many seasons. Thus also arose the
DOMESTICATION of animals: the progression was
likely the dog (ca. 8K BCE) the goat (ca. 6K BCE) then
the sheep, pig, ox, then the horse)
16)
Advanced TOOL making: (polished stone
implements—not just chipped or flaked) includes the
spoked wheel, pulleys, levers, grindstones, celts (axes and
awls), pincers, hoes, ladders, chisels, spindles, looms,
sickles, saws, fish hooks, skates, needles, brooches & pins,
needles and pines for sewing and weaving.
17)
Weaving, dying & POTTERY: along with the
domestication of sheep and harvesting of plants (e.g.,
straw) come tools for weaving (distaffs and spindles) that
enabled Neolithic cultures to move beyond the use of
hides & skins for clothing; woven cloth was stained
(dyed) with juices from plants and earthen minerals.
There is no evidence that Neolithic humans used the
POTTER’S WHEEL; pottery was hand-fashioned into
practical vessels and art forms
18)
BUILDING: Paleolithic humans left no evidence of
habitation other than CAVES; Neolithic humans built
VILLAGES showing extremely sophisticated carpentry
(e.g., lake-Dwelling communities) on pilings in France,
Italy, Scotland, Russia, North America, Switzerland.
Durant notes that such villages (at least through the 20th
century) can still be found in Borneo, Sumatra, & New
Guinea & that Venezuela (literally “LITTLE VENICE”)
was named after Alonso de Ojeda discovered it for
Europe in 1499 and found natives living in pile dwellings
on Lake Maracaibo
19)
TRANSPORT as an industry: similar myths,
products, words & letters, food, rocks shaped into tools
(e.g., obsidian, amber, jade) pottery and design across
many cultures indicate complex trade routes in EUROPE
& the AMERICAS; boating (e.g., canoes) were an
important transport mechanism
20)
(g) MEDICINE and possible CALENDARS: there
is evidence of trephining (the use of a small circular saw to
remove part of the cranium--the part of the skull that
encases the brain. This operation may have been performed
to relieve pressure on the brain following a blow to the
head—as in times of war—or as a religious ritual or mental
health treatment to release evil spirits) in Neolithic skulls,
also, reset broken bones found in skeletons of this period.
CROMLECHS (large stone structures of unknown
purpose) like at Stonehenge had possible religious
significance and may have been used as CALENDARS
and/or astronomical calculators (on the day of the
summer SOLSTICE, the sun rises directly above the
large heel stone—can this be interpreted as accidental?).
Independent Scholarship Challenge: Paleolithic, Mesolithic, or a
natural stone formation unused by man? Imagine a mountainsheltered, deep, calm & clear Bay in Newfoundland with much
obvious evidence of recent glaciation (see specimen). The bay
shallow to about 100 ft out then steep drop off—very rich in
mussels & codfish that are easily captured by net in the
shallows. Very cold nights (even during summer) but
temperate days. Shoreline rocky but transitions rapidly into
heavy forest. Birds abundant—gulls, puffins--egg-harvesting
very easy. EXAMINE THE SPECIMEN recovered from the
shore area. Does it have the characteristic coup-de poing
(“blow of the fist”) shape (sharp on one or more sides—more
rounded or hand-form fitted on the other) that would make it
an effective scraper, axe, or chisel? Could the stone have
acquired this shape naturally? Assume that it is a tool. Into
what era defined above would you place its fabrication and
use?