A Survey of Current Research Questions in
Human-Computer Interaction
Jake Burghar and Jennifer Turns
December 1999 (Draft)
One way of generating research questions that could be addressed in PETTTs research on The
Arthritis Source is to look at the types of research being explored in journals that report on how
people interact with technology. This report will discuss an analysis of the current research published
in one such journal, Human-Computer Interaction. HCI is a prestigious journal whose community
includes academics as well as members of major IT companies. It deals with all the major issues
associated with the HCI field, including the effectiveness of new technologies, methods of
development, and models of human-computer systems.
This analysis is intended to answer two questions: (1) What kinds of questions are being asked in
current research in this field, (2) How could these categories of questions could apply to PETTTs
research on The Arthritis Source.
Methods
A brief survey of article titles in Human-Computer Interaction was conducted, in which the table of
Contents from 1995 to the present was analyzed to find general trends in the kinds of research
questions being asked in this field.
After reading through the selected Table of Contents, nine categories of research questions were
generated. These question categories were based on first impressions of the nature of the research in
the publication, and it is important to stress that they are just suggestions. The articles being
surveyed were not actually read, though some of their abstracts were reviewed to get a better idea as
to their purpose.
Once question categories had been defined, each of the article titles from the dates being studied was
placed each into one of the categories. When this process was completed, the question categories—
and the placement of the titles in those categories—were revised to better fit my understanding of the
research.
The definitions of the categories and the placement of the individual articles within each category was
then reviewed by Jennifer Turns. The descriptions of the categories themselves were clarified, and
the placement of some of the articles were arbitrated. The resulting categories and their descriptions
are listed in Question One.
From these question categories and their associated articles, potential research questions and article
titles for PETTTs research on The Arthritis Source were generated. These questions are listed in
Question Two.
Question One: What Kind of Questions Are Being Asked
In the following pages, each of the nine question categories is described and the articles that were
selected as fitting each category are listed. It should be noted that Human-Computer Interaction often
has special issues that revolve around a single topic. The special issues that were covered in this
analysis are:
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Object oriented design
multimodal interfaces
cognitive architectures and human-computer interaction
Experimental comparisons of usability evaluation methods
Representations in interactive systems development
NOTE: “+” before an entry signifies that the article was placed into more than one of the question
categories.
What methods can researchers use as they explore a design context?
The titles of these articles suggested that their content discussed different methods of data collection,
coding, and analysis. Several of the articles discuss the use of ethnography in interface design.
A good example of an article that belongs in this category is “Characterizing the Sequential Structure
of Interactive Behaviors Through Statistical and Grammatical Techniques.” It presumably involves
both quantitative and qualitative analyses of user behavior.
The articles selected for this category are:
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Representation and Requirements: The Value of Ethnography in System Design. 1994. 9(1)
Exploratory Sequential Data Analysis: Foundations. 1994. 9(3,4)
Algorithms for Automatic Dialogue Analysis Using Propositional Production Systems. 1995. 10(1)
Characterizing the Sequential Structure of Interactive Behaviors Through Statistical and Grammatical
Techniques. 1994. 9(3,4) [pp. 427-472]
+ On “Technomethodology”: Foundational Relationships between ethnomethodology and system
design. 1998. 13(4)
+ Coherence: An approach to representing ethnographic analyses in systems design. 1999. 14(1,2)
+ Developing and using interaction coding systems for studying groupware use. 1998. 13(2)
How can user tasks be modeled and analyzed?
The titles of these articles suggested that their content discussed the nature of user tasks.
Understanding tasks is an essential component of designing effective interfaces, and these articles
appear to discuss several different means of categorizing and breaking down component actions.
A good example of an article that belongs in this category is “Timetrees: A branching-time structure
for modeling activity and state in human-computer interaction.”
The articles selected for this category are:
Draft
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+ Sequences of Actions for Individual and Teams of Air Traffic Controllers. 1994. 9(3,4)
Developing Process Models as Summaries of HCI Action Sequences. 1994. 9(3,4) [pp. 345-383]
Timetrees: A branching-time structure for modeling activity and state in human-computer interaction.
1999. 14(3)
+ Developing and using interaction coding systems for studying groupware use. 1998. 13(2)
+ Coherence: An approach to representing ethnographic analyses in systems design. 1999. 14(1,2)
Syndetic Modeling. 1998. 13(4)
Quick and Dirty GOMS: A Case Study of Computed Tomography Interpretation. 1996. 11(2)
Procedural Network Representations of Sequential Data. 1996. 11(1)
Concerns at work: Designing useful procedures. 1998. 13(4)
User interface affordances in a planning representation. 1999. 14(3)
How can developers integrate users into their designs?
The titles of these articles suggested that their content discussed facets of user-centered design
process. These facets range from models of user-developer interaction to methods for user
participation.
A good example of an article that belongs in this category is “User Participation and Participatory
Design: Topics in Computing Education.”
The articles selected for this category are:
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MUST: A method for participatory design. 1998. 13(2)
Creating Conditions for Participation: Conflicts and Resources in Systems Development. 1996. 11(3)
Representations and User-Developer Interaction in Cooperative Analysis and design. 1999. 14(1,2)
The work of IT system developers in context: An organizational case study. 1998. 13(1)
User Participation and Participatory Design: Topics in Computing Education. 1996. 11(3)
Encountering Others: Reciprocal Openings in Participatory Design and User-Centered Design. 1996.
11(3)
Damaged Merchandise? A review of experimental comparisons of usability evaluation methods. 1998.
13(3)
+Mapping Actors and Agenda: Political Frameworks of System Design and Participation. 1996. 11(3)
+ On “Technomethodology”: Foundational Relationships between ethnomethodology and system
design. 1998. 13(4)
+ Coherence: An approach to representing ethnographic analyses in systems design. 1999. 14(1,2)
How do we characterize and design for group processes?
The titles of these articles suggested that their content discussed how technology can affect
collaboration. In particular, three of these articles deal with how computers can mediate remote
communication.
The articles selected for this category are:
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Draft
Interpersonal Access Control in Computer Mediated Communications: A Systematic Analysis of the
Design Space. 1996. 11(4)
+ Sequences of Actions for Individual and Teams of Air Traffic Controllers. 1994. 9(3,4)
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+ Developing and using interaction coding systems for studying groupware use. 1998. 13(2)
+Cooperative work and shared visual context: An empirical study of comprehension problems in sideby-side and remote help dialogues. 1999. 14(3)
Remote Conversations: The Effects of Mediating Talk with Technology. 1995. 10(4)
Technology, group process, and group outcomes: Testing the connections in computer-mediated and
face-to-face groups. 1997. 12(3)
How do users interact with hypertext?
The titles of these articles suggested that their content discussed how the design of hypertext
influences user outcomes. While the last two articles may not be the best candidates for this category,
they deal with on-screen design factors—factors that can be applied to hypertext design.
The articles selected for this category are:
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Interacting With Hypertext: A Meta-Analysis of Experimental Studies. 1996. 11(2)
Promoting active learning: The role of system structure in learning from hypertext. 1998. 13(1)
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The Role of Visual Fidelity in Computer-Based Instruction. 1994. 9(1)
+Cooperative work and shared visual context: An empirical study of comprehension problems in sideby-side and remote help dialogues. 1999. 14(3)
What can we learn about a task by studying users with varying levels of
experience?
The titles of these articles suggested that their content discussed how designers can accomadate
varying levels of user expertise in their applications. In some of the articles, it appears that experts
were studied to find the optimal strategies for accomplishing a task. In others, it appears that
beginners were studied to discover the kind of mistakes that inexperienced users make.
A good example of an article that belongs in this category is “Are Objects that Important? The Effects
of Expertise and Familiarity on the Classification of Object-Oriented Code.” This article presumably
illustrates differences in the work of beginning and expert users of object oriented programming.
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What Does Psuedo-Code Do?: A Psychological Analysis of the Use of Pseudo-Code by Experienced
Programmers. 1994. 9(1)
Design Strategies and Knowledge in Object-Oriented Programming: Effects of Experience. 1995.
10(2,3)
Development of Text-Editing Skill: From Semantic and Syntactic Mappings to Procedures. 1995.
10(4)
+ Are Objects that Important? The Effects of Expertise and Familiarity on the Classification of ObjectOriented Code. 1995. 10(2,3)
The untrained eye: how languages for software specification support understanding in untrained users.
1999. 14(1,2)
+ TYPIST: A Theory of Performance in Skilled Typing. 1996. 11(4)
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How can interface modalities be tailored to meet user needs?
The titles of these articles suggested that their content discussed how interfaces can be designed to
meet the needs of particular audiences, such as the visually disabled. Other modalities, such as a
computerized “face” or the “One-Handed Touch-Typing on a QWERTY Keyboard,” present new
ways of using more typical modalities.
The articles selected for this category are:
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Access to Mathematics for Visually Disabled Students Through Multimodal Interaction. 1997. 12(1,2)
Multimodal Interactive Maps: Designing for Human Performance. 1997. 12(1,2)
A Mechanism for Multimodal Presentation Planning Based on Agent Cooperation and Negotiation.
1997. 12(1,2)
Transforming Graphical Interfaces into Auditory Interfaces for Blind Users. 1997. 12(1,2)
Towards an Information Visualization Workspace: Combining Multiple Means of Expression. 1997.
12(1,2)
When the Interface is a Face. 1996. 11(2)
One-Handed Touch-Typing on a QWERTY Keyboard. 1996. 11(1)
How can the development process be improved?
The titles of these articles suggested that their content discussed types of processes that designers
have used in creating computer-based products. These processes appear to describe different
organizational strategies and representations in the design process. Some of the articles are general
frameworks for product development, while others appear to have more of a case study tone.
A good example of an article that belongs in this category is “Object-Oriented System Development
in a Banking Project: Methodology, Experiences and Conclusions.” This article appears to discuss
both general techniques of development and individual cases.
The articles selected for this category are:
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Draft
Object-Oriented Analysis and Design in Software Project Teams. 1995. 10(2,3)
+Mapping Actors and Agenda: Political Frameworks of System Design and Participation. 1996. 11(3)
Metaphors and models: Conceptual foundations of representations in interactive systems development.
1999. 14(1,2)
+ Literate specification: Using Design Rationale to Support Formal Methods in the Development of
Human-Machine Interfaces. 1996. 11(4)
Object-Oriented System Development in a Banking Project: Methodology, Experiences and
Conclusions. 1995. 10(2,3)
+ Reflections on a Work-Oriented Design Project. 1996. 11(3)
The Management of Repair in Human-Computer Interaction. 1994. 9(3,4) [pp. 385-425]
The Objects of Our Desire: Empirical Research on Object-Oriented Development. 1995. 10(2,3)
Beyond Object-Oriented Technology: Where Current Object-Oriented Approaches Fall Short. 1995.
10(1)
Living Design Memory: Framework, Implementation, Lessons Learned. 1995. 10(1)
Object-Oriented System Development in a Banking Project: Methodology, Experiences and
Conclusions. 1995. 10(2,3)
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How can user cognitive activity be represented in models and theory?
The titles of these articles suggested that their content discussed frameworks for representing user
information processing. Many of these articles appear to be discussing how traditional cognitive
psychology models can be applied to the human-computer interaction field.
A good example of an article that belongs in this category is “ACT-R: A theory of higher level
cognition and its relation to visual attention.”
The articles selected for this category are:
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The role of cognitive architecture in modeling the user: Soar’s learning mechanism. 1997. 12(3)
Representing cognitive activity in complex tasks. 1999. 14(1,2)
Cognitive Support: Extending human knowledge and processing capacities. 1998. 13(1)
Transfer of Declarative Knowledge in Complex Information Processing Domains. 1996. 11(1)
ACT-R: A theory of higher level cognition and its relation to visual attention. 1997. 12(3)
Graphical Argumentation and design cognition. 1997. 12(3)
A comprehension-based model of exploration. 1997. 12(3)
An overview of the EPIC architecture for cognition and performance with application to humancomputer interaction. 1997. 12(3)
+ TYPIST: A Theory of Performance in Skilled Typing. 1996. 11(4)
+ Literate specification: Using Design Rationale to Support Formal Methods in the Development of
Human-Machine Interfaces. 1996. 11(4)
Cognitive Activities and Levels of Abstraction in Procedural and Object-Oriented Design. 1995.
10(2,3)
Understanding representation in design. 1998. 13(2)
Question Two: How Can These Questions Be Applied to PETTTs
Research on The Arthritis Source
The second purpose of the report is to stimulate a conversation about how the categories of questions
defined above could be applied to PETTTs Research on The Arthritis Source. Although it is possible
to think of many questions that fit into these question categories, we are only interested in questions
that further PETTTs research agenda. Some criteria for choosing research questions for PETTT are:
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Will the research be consistent with PETTTs goals?
Will the research question be a valid one in the context of The Arthritis Source?
Will the research be consistent with our personal interests?
Some possible questions for each of the question categories are listed below.
What methods can researchers use as they explore the HCI field?
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Draft
What kind of characterizations can be made to inform educational design? Could a
checklist be created for instructors to characterize their class materials, their students and
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their own needs? How can these characterizations help designer to understand the issues
of their teaching situation? How can they inform educational design?
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How can log file analysis be used to track usage patterns in web-based educational
material?
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Research methods case study: Working with an existing website: Bottom-up
methodology, beginning with the design, moving on to the user and finally to instructors.
How can user tasks be modeled and analyzed?
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What types of models can explain wayfinding/navigation in hypertext? What analogies
from other fields (psychology, TC, others) apply to this medium?
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How can user tasks be characterized in log file analysis? Could general templates of use
be created to characterize different uses of a site? How can user goals be extrapolated
from navigational paths?
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How can Markov diagrams be used as a high level strategy of characterizing the use of a
website? Case study of the arthritis source, before and after navigational redesign—how
can this difference in user navigation be represented graphically?
How can developers integrate users into their designs?
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How can developers use log file and survey data to track the effectiveness of changes to
their site?
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How can different levels of subject participation be incorporated into research designs?
Explains how users can be integrated in the design process, beginning with log files and
continuing on to online surveys and phone interviews, which can then lead to lab work.
Could be a case study on The Arthritis Source?
How are group processes affected by the use of IT?
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How do patients incorporate web-based information in to their interactions with their
health care professionals?
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How do health care professionals incorporate web-based information into their
interactions with patients?
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How can web sites encourage communities of learners? What tools can be used and how
do they influence group dynamics?
How do users interact with hypertext?
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Draft
How can designers promote sustained interactions with websites?
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What particular design issues can PETTT address with formal research? Page length,
browse sequences, etc.
What can we learn about a task by studying users with varying levels of experience?
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How can an educational site be designed for novices and more advanced users? The
Arthritis Source’s users will have different degrees of experience in navigating the web,
what design decisions can be me made in relation to that range?
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How does an ongoing interaction with The Arthirits Source change the tasks associated
with its use?
How can interface modalities be tailored to meet user needs?
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How can conflicting user needs be incorporated into designs? Arthritis patients are a
varied audience with many different needs, some of which may conflict with each other.
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How to accommodate user needs changing with time? (e.g., degenerative arthritis)
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How can a Kiosk be designed for arthritis patients? A case study?
How can the development process be improved?
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How can designers develop lasting relationships with users? What implications do
ongoing interactions have on web design?
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When the developer is a novice: Creating templates and design heuristics for educational
materials.
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Heuristics and design templates: How are they actually used by the audience that they are
intended for?
How can user cognitive activity be represented in models and theory?
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Draft
This category may not be PETTT specific?
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