Academic Standard 7-2
7-2:
Topic: Cells and Heredity
Students will demonstrate an understanding of the structure and function of cells,
cellular reproduction, and heredity. (Life Science)
Key Concepts:
Cell Structure: cell wall, the cell membrane, the nucleus, chloroplasts, mitochondria, vacuoles
Bacteria: spiral, coccus, bacillus
Protists: euglena, paramecium, amoeba, pseudopods, cilia, flagella,
Cellular Processes: respiration, photosynthesis, elimination, metabolism, mitosis,
Genetics: genes, chromosomes, inherited traits, genotype, phenotype, dominant traits, recessive traits
Indicators:
7-2.1 Summarize the structures and functions of the major components of plant and animal
cells (including the cell wall, the cell membrane, the nucleus, chloroplasts, mitochondria,
and vacuoles).
Taxonomy level: 2.4-B Understand Conceptual Knowledge
Previous/future knowledge: Students previously learned about cells in 5th grade, focusing on the
following parts: cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, and vacuole. Students have not studied
mitochondria, chloroplasts, or cell walls. This will be new information for students.
It is essential for students to know that a cell is the smallest unit of life that conducts all life
functions. Each cell has major structures within it that perform these life functions. Structures that are
common to plant and animal cells are the cell membrane, nucleus, mitochondria and vacuoles.
Structures that are specific to plants are the cell wall and chloroplasts.
Students should know that
 the cell is the smallest unit of life.
 cells vary in size, but contain many of the same major parts.
 the cell membrane is the outside covering of a cell. It controls what comes in and out of a cell.
 the cytoplasm is the gel-like fluid inside of a cell. The other organelles are embedded in the
cytoplasm.
 the nucleus contains DNA and is the control center of the cell.
 the vacuole(s) act as storage centers.
 the chloroplasts are the food-making structures of a plant cell.
 the mitochondria use oxygen to release energy from food. It is sometimes called the
“powerhouse” of the cell.
 the cell wall provides extra support and shape for plant cells. It is made mostly of cellulose.
It is not essential that students know endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi bodies, lysosomes, or
ribosomes.
Assessment Guidelines:
The objective of this indicator is to summarize the structures and functions of cell components;
therefore, the primary focus of assessment should be to generalize the main points regarding the
major functions of the cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, vacuole, chloroplast, mitochondria, and
cell wall. However, appropriate assessments should also require students to identify individual parts
of the cell; illustrate parts of the cell using words, pictures, or diagrams; or classify the cell structures
as either a structure in an animal cell or a plant cell.
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Academic Standard 7-2
Topic: Cells and Heredity
7-2.2 Compare the major components of plant and animal cells.
Taxonomy level: 2.6-B Understand Conceptual Knowledge
Previous/future knowledge: Students previously learned about cells in 5th grade, focusing on the
following parts: cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, and vacuole. In 6th grade students learned about
plants and animals but not their cells. In the previous indicator (7-2.1) students summarized the major
functions of the cell structures. Students have not studied the major differences between plants and
animals at the cellular level. More detail of cell structures and processes will be a part of high school
biology classes.
It is essential for students to classify the major structures within a cell, especially the cell wall, the
cell membrane, the nucleus, chloroplasts, mitochondria, and vacuoles as a plant or animal structure.
They should be able to explain the functions and importance of the cellular components in order to be
able to compare these structures in plant and animal cells.
Major structural differences between a plant and an animal cell include.
 Plant cells have a cell wall, but animal cells do not. Cell walls provide support and give shape to
plants.
 Plant cells have chloroplasts, but animal cells do not. Chloroplasts enable plants to perform
photosynthesis to make food.
 Plants cells usually have one or more large vacuole(s), while animal cells have smaller vacuoles,
if any are present. Large vacuoles help provide shape and allow the plant to store water and food
for future use.
It is not essential for students to know other organelles in plant and animal cells or to know the
chemical processes that occur within the cell parts.
Assessment Guidelines:
The objective of this indicator is to compare components of plant and animal cells; therefore, the
primary focus of assessment should be to detect how the plant and animal cells structures are similar
and different. However, appropriate assessments should also require students to exemplify (give examples of)
cell parts that perform specific functions; illustrate or use illustrations of plant and animal cells to
indicate cell structures in each type of cell; or classify cells as either plant or animal based on their
cell parts.
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Academic Standard 7-2
Topic: Cells and Heredity
7-2.3 Compare the body shapes of bacteria (spiral, coccus, and bacillus) and the body
structures that protists (euglena, paramecium, amoeba) use for food gathering and
locomotion.
Taxonomy level: 2.6-B Understand Conceptual Knowledge
Previous/future knowledge: Students have received no previous instruction concerning bacteria or
protists. This is new material for them. Students previously learned the characteristics of the five
kingdoms in 6th grade.
It is essential that students be able to classify bacteria by their shape and protists (euglena,
paramecium, amoeba), by the way they move and gather food.
Students should know that there are three basic bacterial shapes.
Round
Round bacteria are referred to as cocci 
Rod shaped
Rod shaped bacteria are known as bacilli
Spiral
Spiral shaped bacteria are corkscrew shaped are known as spirilla
Protists are organisms that are classified into the kingdom Protista. Although there is a lot of variety
within the protists, they do share some common characteristics.
All protists have
 a nucleus with a nuclear membrane.
 are usually one-celled.
 live in moist environments.
Protists are grouped by the way they move and obtain food:
 Protists with Pseudopods (for example the amoeba) These protists move by extending their
bodies forward and then pulling the rest of their bodies forward as well. The finger-like
structures that they project forward are called pseudopods (false foot). The pseudopods are also
used to trap food.

Protists with Cilia (for example the paramecium) these protists move by beating tiny hair-like
structures called cilia. The cilia act as tiny oars that allow the protist to move through its watery
environment. The cilia also beat and help to capture food

Protists with Flagella (for example the Euglena) These protists move pulling themselves with
long whip-like structure called flagella. These protists can have one or more flagella that help
them move. The euglena is unique in that it has characteristics of both a plant and an animal, it
contains chloroplasts that photosynthesize and also can consume other organisms as well.
Assessment Guidelines:
The objective of this indicator is to compare the body shapes of bacteria and the body structures of
protists; therefore, the primary focus of assessment should be to detect differences between the shape
of bacteria, and between the structure used for movement and food obtainment of protists. However,
appropriate assessments should also require students to classify a bacterial cell as spiral, coccus or
bacillus; or identify a protist as a euglena, amoeba, or paramecium based on its structures.
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Academic Standard 7-2
Topic: Cells and Heredity
Teacher note:
This may be a good place to introduce Viruses. Even though viruses are not tested, students will
need a working knowledge of how they attach to living cells and cause an interruption in cell
functioning and direct the cell to make more viruses – will be related to diseases.
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Viruses are much smaller than bacteria and can only be seen with an electron microscope.
A virus contains genetic information wrapped in a protein coat.
A virus is an infectious organism that reproduces within the cells of an infected host.
In isolation, viruses show none of the expected signs of life. They do not respond to stimuli, they
do not grow; they do not do any of the things we normally associate with life. Strictly speaking,
they should not be considered as "living" organisms at all.
However they do show one of the most important signs of life: the ability to reproduce.
A virus is not alive until it enters the cells of a living plant or animal.
Viruses can be useful as well as harmful.
Viruses are responsible for causing many diseases in living things (for example AIDS in humans).
Even viruses engineered for useful purposes can be harmful if unchecked.
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Academic Standard 7-2
Topic: Cells and Heredity
7-2.4 Explain how cellular processes (including respiration, photosynthesis in plants, mitosis,
and waste elimination) are essential to the survival of the organism.
Taxonomy level: 2.7-B Understand Conceptual Knowledge
Previous/future knowledge: Students have received previous instruction concerning respiration and
photosynthesis in 6th grade (6-2.7). Students will study in greater detail the cellular processes of
organisms as part of high school biology.
It is essential that students be able to understand how cellular processes, including respiration,
photosynthesis, mitosis, and waste elimination, are necessary for the survival of an organism.
Cellular processes for survival
Photosynthesis
The life cycle begins with photosynthesis within a plant cell. The plant uses
the energy from sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water, to make food. The plant
cell then releases oxygen as waste. Once the “food” is formed it is either used
by the plant or consumed by an animal. This food is broken down in the plant
or animal’s cell through a process called respiration.
Respiration
Breaks “food” into carbon dioxide, water, and energy. Carbon dioxide and
water are the waste products of respiration. The cell uses the energy to build,
repair, and reproduce cells.
Elimination
Rids the cells of waste products that would be toxic to the cell. Molecules
move from a crowded area to a less crowded area (diffusion), as waste
molecules accumulate in a cell, the waste will move out of the cell and be
eliminated.
Mitosis
Cell reproduction is called mitosis. Mitosis enables a cell to make an exact
copy of it. Mitosis is a process of cell division, which results in the production
of two daughter cells from a single parent cell. The daughter cells are identical
to one another and to the original parent cell. Mitosis is needed for growth,
replacement, and asexual reproduction.
It is not necessary for students to know the stages of mitosis.
Assessment Guidelines:
The objective of this indicator is to explain the effects cellular processes have on the survival of an
organism; therefore, the primary focus of assessment should be to construct cause and effect models
of the various ways that a cells survival are affected by cellular processes. However, appropriate
assessments should also require students to recall and or compare the processes of photosynthesis
and respiration; or exemplify (give examples of) the ways that these processes affect cellular survival;
or summarize cellular processes.
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Academic Standard 7-2
Topic: Cells and Heredity
7-2.5 Summarize how genetic information is passed from parent to offspring by using the
terms genes, chromosomes, inherited traits, genotype, phenotype, dominant traits, and
recessive traits.
Taxonomy level: 2.4-B Understand Conceptual Knowledge
Previous/future knowledge: Students have had no previous instruction in genetics, but they were
introduced to inherited traits in 4th grade (4-2.4). Students should know that the genetic information
passed from parent to offspring is coded in the cell nucleus (DNA). Students will study in greater
detail DNA and RNA and how these substances function and are replicated as part of high school
biology.
It is essential that students know:
 Genes are usually known as the physical unit of heredity. Genes are formed from DNA, located
on the chromosomes and are responsible for the inherited characteristics that distinguish one
individual from another. Each human individual has an estimated 30,000 separate genes.
 Chromosomes are the self-replicating genetic structures of cells.
 Inherited traits are those that are passed from parent to offspring. Examples of inherited traits are
eye color, eye shape, hair type, or face shape.
 Some of the traits passed from parent to offspring are dominant. A dominant trait is one that will
always be expressed. Alleles for dominant traits are represented by a capital letter.
 Some of the traits are recessive. A recessive trait is one that will only be expressed if two
recessive traits have been passed. In the presence of a dominant trait, the recessive trait will not
appear. Alleles for recessive traits are represented by a lowercase letter.
 The phenotype of an organism encompasses its physical and behavioral characteristics. For
example, eye color, height, or skin color, all constitute the phenotype of an individual. In other
words, the phenotype refers to the physical characteristics of an individual.
 The genotype consists of the genetic makeup of an organism. It represents the collection of all
the genes found on the chromosomes in the nucleus of each cell. These genes are used as a
"blueprint" or set of instructions for building and maintaining a living creature.
Mechanisms of Inheritance Biological information can be passed on from one generation to the
next. Each gene is copied and then the copy is transferred to the new cell or organism as it reproduces
and duplicates itself:
 Reproduction is a basic and fundamental process common to all forms of life on earth.
 In this process organisms and cells produce new copies of themselves by following the
instructions and blueprints they all carry in the genetic code.
 During reproduction these instructions and blueprints, in the form of biological information, are
copied and then passed on from one generation to the next. This is inheritance. The offspring
receives one gene from each parent.
 Cellular life depends on the ability of cells to grow, copy their biological information, and then
divide into two new cells, ensuring that each new cell receives a complete copy of all the
information it needs. This is cell division.
It is not essential for students to know the detailed workings of DNA, the terms cytosine, guanine,
adenine, or thymine or RNA.
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Academic Standard 7-2
Topic: Cells and Heredity
Assessment Guidelines:
The objective of this indicator is to summarize how genetic information is passed from parent to
offspring; therefore, the primary focus of assessment should be to generalize the major points about
how genetic information is passed to offspring including genes, chromosomes, inherited traits,
genotype, phenotype, dominant traits, and recessive traits. However, appropriate assessments should
also require students to identify the main components of genetic information; or compare a genotype
to a phenotype or dominant and recessive traits
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Academic Standard 7-2
Topic: Cells and Heredity
7-2.6 Use Punnett squares to predict inherited monohybrid traits.
Taxonomy level: 3.2-C Apply Procedural Knowledge
Previous/future knowledge: Students have received no previous instruction in the use of Punnett
squares. Students should have a beginning level of understanding of genetics and dominant and
recessive genes.
It is essential that students be able to use a Punnett square to predict the inheritance of monohybrid
traits.
A monohybrid inheritance is the inheritance of a single characteristic.
 The cross that involves one pair of contrasting traits
 For example, crossing a tall (Tt) plant a short (tt) plant is a monohybrid cross
 Every new cell has received one gene from each parent
 For example a cell with Tt genotype has received a gene for tall height dominance (T) from
one parent and a recessive gene for short height from the other parent (t).
 Each parent has two genes and the probability that the offspring receive one or the other gene
is determined by a Punnett square.
FEMALE PARENT
Tt
Tt
MALE PARENT
tt
tt
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Academic Standard 7-2
Topic: Cells and Heredity
Assessment Guidelines:
The objective of this indicator is to use Punnett squares; therefore, the primary focus of assessment
should be to apply procedural knowledge of a Punnett square to predict the inheritance of a
monohybrid trait. However, appropriate assessments should also require students to interpret some
basic information on a Punnett square; or compare trait combinations that would relate to different
genetic predictions; or predict probability of traits.
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Academic Standard 7-2
Topic: Cells and Heredity
7-2.7 Distinguish between inherited traits and those acquired from environmental factors.
Taxonomy level: 4.1-B Analyze Conceptual Knowledge
Previous/future knowledge: Students have previously learned about inherited and behavioral traits
in fourth grade (4-2.4) and sixth grade (6-3.7). Students have also learned about how traits are passed
from parent to offspring (7-2.5).
It is essential for students to know that some characteristics that organisms have are inherited from
their parents and some can be influenced by environmental factors.
An inherited trait is a particular genetically determined characteristic or quality that distinguishes an
organism from other organisms.
 Inherited traits are passed on from generation to generation when chromosomes carrying genes
are passed from parent to offspring in sex cells.
 Some inherited traits are dominant, some are recessive, and some are neither.
 Examples of inherited traits in humans include color blindness, baldness, blood type, and skin
color, the ability to taste certain substances, or free or attached ear lobes.
Any characteristic or behavior that cannot be attributed to a genetic value or genes of the individual is
said to be a result of environmental factors. Examples of environmental factors that can affect traits
of organisms include temperature, diet, medical care, or living conditions. Environment determines
the phenotypic pattern of expression.
Assessment Guidelines:
The objective of this indicator is to distinguish between inherited traits and traits due to
environmental factors; therefore, the primary focus of assessment should be to distinguish between
behaviors that are learned or acquired from the organism’s environment from those that are inherited.
However, appropriate assessments should also require students to identify a particular behavior as
acquired or inherited; exemplify (give examples of) behaviors that would occur due to
learning/acquired or inheritance; or classify behaviors as acquired/learned or inherited.
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Academic Standard 7-2
Topic: Cells and Heredity
Supporting Content Web Sites
“How Are Traits Inherited”
http://biology.wsc.ma.edu/hoagland/PowderMillI/heredtrait.htm This describes cell division and
heredity with explanations of genes, chromosomes, and alleles. It also includes an animation of
mitosis and meiosis.
7-2.7
“Cells Alive”
www.cellsalive.com
This site contains interactive pictures of plant and animal cells, descriptions of cell parts, and
information about bacterial cells.
7-2.1, 7-2.2, 7-2.3
“Protozoa and Protists”
http://www.uga.edu/protozoa/education/students/for_students_sop_web_ora.doc
This site describes food getting and locomotion of protists. It also includes pictures and links to other
sites.
7-2.3
“Plant Physiology: Photosynthesis, Respiration, and Transpiration”
http://www.ext.colostate.edu/pubs/garden/07710.html
This site describes photosynthesis and respiration and has a comparison table of both
7-2.4
“Photosynthesis: How Life Keeps Going”
http://www.ftexploring.com/photosyn/photosynth.html
This is an interesting site explaining the flow of energy in organisms. It has explanations and novel
drawings.
7-2.4
“Working Out Punnett Square Examples”
http://www.athro.com/evo/gen/punexam.html
This site gives information about the “parents” and allows students to complete Punnett Squares
online.
7-2.6
“Heredity, A Link to Your Past”
http://extension.usu.edu/AITC/teachers/elementary/heredity.html
This site contains lesson plans and resources for the student which include inherited and acquired
traits.
7-2.7
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Academic Standard 7-2
Topic: Cells and Heredity
“Genotype versus Phenotype”
http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evosite/evo101/IIIA1Genotypevsphenotype.shtml
This site explains the difference between phenotype and genotype and uses pictures to illustrate this.
7-2.5
“Microorganisms”
http://www.biology4kids.com/files/micro_main.html
This web site gives information about various protists and bacteria in a simple format.
7-2.3
“Basic Principles of Genetics”
http://anthro.palomar.edu/mendel/
This site provides information about Mendel, probability, Punnett Squares, (do not address
exceptions) and has links, and a puzzle.
7-2.5, 7-2.6, 7-2.7
Suggested Literature
Fridell, R. (2004). Decoding life: unraveling the mysteries of the genome.
Lerner Publishing Group
ISBN: 0-8225-1196-7
This book provides an overview of modern genetics from Mendel to genetic engineering. The
Human Genome Project and its potential are discussed.
7-2.5, 7-2.6, 7-2.7
Walker, R. (2003). Genes and DNA. Kingfisher Knowledge.
ISBN: 0-7534-5621-4
The purpose of this book is to help students fully understand the complex concepts of DNA and
genetics. It contains full color photographs and illustrations.
7-2.5
Kramer, S. (2001). Hidden worlds: looking through a scientist’s microscope.
Houghton Mifflin
ISBN: 0-618-05546-0
This book uses many photos while discussing the hidden world revealed by a microscope. It brings
“cells” to life for the reader.
7-2.2, 7-2.3
Walker, R. (2004). Microscopic life. Kingfisher Knowledge
ISBN: 0753457784
Bacteria are included in this book as it explores the small world around us.
7-2.3
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Academic Standard 7-2
Topic: Cells and Heredity
Bailey, N., Eskeland, N. (2001) Fun with gene. Science2Discover, Inc.
ISBN: 0-9673811-3-4
Students will have fun with this book while learning about genetics and biotechnology. They will
help to solve cases related to forensic science, genetic diseases, and agriculture.
7-2.5, 7-2.7
Nye, B. (2005). Bill Nye the science guy’s great big book of tiny germs.
Hyperion Books for Children
ISBN: 0786805439
This book describes both “good” and “bad” germs including bacteria and viruses.
7-2.3
Balkwill, F. Rolph, M. (2002). Enjoy your cells. Cold Springs Harbor Press.
ISBN: 0879695846
In simple, but scientifically accurate, manner, this book takes students on an exploration of the
hidden world of cells.
7-2.1, 7-2.2, 7-2.3
Thomas, L. (1995). The lives of a cell: notes of a biology watcher. Penquin Books.
ISBN: 0140047433
This is a collection of essays by the author that are well written and interesting. This would be more
appropriate for higher level students.
7-2.1, 7-2.3
Woodard, K. (2004). My first book about DNA. Xlibris
ISBN: 1-4010-7816-8
This book provides information about DNA and genetics, simply, so that a child can understand it
and even a parent can also.
7-2.5
Landa, N., Baeuerle, P. (1997). The Y makes the guy. Barrons:Hauppauge
ISBN: 076415064
This describes a trip that a group of students make with “Professor Gene” to learn about the structure
and function of chromosomes, including X and Y, and information about DNA and RNA.
7-2.5
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Academic Standard 7-2
Topic: Cells and Heredity
Suggested Streamline Video
“The Living Cell”
ETV Streamline SC
This video uses a game called “cell-ebrity-squares” to learn about the structure and functions of plant
and animal cells.
20:00
7-2.1, 7-2.2
“Life Science: Bacteria”
“Introduction to Bacteria”
ETV Streamline SC
This provides an overview of bacteria including functions, locations, and effects.
2:44
7-2.3
“Bacteria: Friends or Enemies”
“Form and Function: Bacteria are the Simplest Organisms”
ETV Streamline SC
This describes the bacterial cell and its parts.
3:40
7-2.1
“Life Science: Cells”
“Introduction to Cells”
ETV Streamline SC
This video is an overview of cells which utilizes information from a scientist and animations and
microphotographs of cell parts.
3:35
7-2.1
“Introducing the Cell”
ETV Streamline SC
This includes information on single celled organisms, basic cell parts, and the differences between
plant and animal cells.
21:00
7-2.1, 7-2.2, 7-2.4, 7-2.5
“World of Protozoa”
“Feeding Styles of Protozoa”
ETV Streamline SC
This video shows various methods of feeding among protists.
4:26
7-2.3
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Academic Standard 7-2
Topic: Cells and Heredity
“World of Protozoa:
“Movement of Protozoa”
ETV Streamline SC
This video shows the different methods of locomotion used by protists.
1:31
7-2.3
“Greatest Discoveries with Bill Nye: Genetics”
“The Basics of Genes”
ETV Streamline SC
This introduces inheritance through information about Mendel’s experiments. It, also, describes
genes and chromosomes.
10:30
7-2.5
“Genes, Genetics and DNA”
“Gregor Mendel’s Rules of Heredity: Using Punnett Squares”
ETV Streamline SC
This presents information about heredity including dominate and recessive traits.
5:04
7-2.6
“Genes, Genetics, and DNA”
“Practice Makes Perfect: Maximizing Your Inherited Traits”
ETV Streamline SC
This illustrates and explains ways to enhance certain traits.
1:32
7-2.7
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Academic Standard 7-2
Topic: Cells and Heredity
Career Connections
Biomedical Engineer-researches and develops new ways to help people who are handicapped
because of the malfunction of some organ of the body.
Biophysicist- studies the physical principles within living cells and organisms.
Geneticist- studies the process of inheritance to attempt to determine what causes different traits and
inherited disorders.
Microbiologist- investigates microscopic organisms such as bacteria, viruses, algae, yeasts, and
molds. These scientists try to discover how these organisms affect animals, plants and the
environment.
Genetic Counselor- provides information and support to families whose members may have or are at
risk of having various genetic conditions.
Cytotechnologist- stains, mounts, and studies cells of the human body to determine pathological
conditions.
Clinical Cytogeneticist- processes and analyzes samples taken from patients in order to detect
chromosome abnormalities.
Molecular Geneticist- carries out DNA analyses on samples taken from patients. Types of analyses
include prenatal diagnosis and confirmation of diagnosis for patients with genetic disorders.
Cellular Biologist- deals with microbes (bacteria, viruses, and fungi) or with activities within cells o
f multicellular organisms, usually microscopic.
Genetic Research Technician- assists in the laboratory of a geneticist in discovering new
information about genetic disorders and other related areas.
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