Rachael Roseberg
12 Ancient History
Mr. Slow
1
Ancient History
Assessment Task 4
Ramesside Society
Explain, using evidence, the daily lives of ordinary Egyptians, (e.g. occupations, housing,
furniture, food, clothing and leisure).
This essay will examine the daily life of ordinary Egyptians under the Ramessides, finding out who
these ordinary Egyptians were, how they lived and to what extent they conform to Pierre Montet’s
assertion; that, after examining everyday life under Ramesses the Great, “for the ordinary man, the
good moments of life outnumbered the bad”.1
Under the Ramessides, the king, nobility and a small middle class made up about 7-8% of the
population. At bottom, over 90% of the population derived their living from the land and were serviced
by local tradesmen. Included are herders and fishermen but the vast bulk of this category consisted of
agricultural laborers who cultivated the fields of barley and wheat which provided the two staples of
Egyptian life – bread and beer, the surplus of which sustained the state. It was rare for these laborers to
own the land they worked. These are the ordinary Egyptians whose daily lives will be examined. 2
Egypt was “the gift of the Nile,”3 a gift from the gods; without it communal life would not have been
possible. The flood season, Akhit, June – September, saw the Nile overflow its banks, eventually
receding leaving a deposit of rich, fertile alluvial soil. During these four months, agricultural workers
tended their animals – oxen, cattle, geese, donkeys, dogs, goats, ducks and cranes, cultivated their fruit
and vegetable gardens, and repaired what was necessary around the house.
Peasant houses were made from bricks of sun dried mud mixed with straw and pebbles. Wood was
scarce. Over time the bricks deteriorated and needed replacing but this was easily done, all the
materials were there, so housing was not a problem. Akhit was a good period to make repairs to the
Montet, P. ‘Everyday Life in Ancient Egypt in the days of Ramesses the Great’. Edward Arnold. USA. 1958. P. 330
‘Daily life Ancient Egypt’. http:www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/Egypt/dailylife/housing.htm Accessed 04/08/05.
3
Herodotus. As cited in Hurley, T. et. al. ‘Antiquity 2. Second Edition’. Oxford University Press. 2000. p.3
1
2
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12 Ancient History
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dwelling. The average dimension of a worker’s house was 4m by 20m. A worker’s home had two to
four rooms at ground level, a kitchen at the back of the house, an enclosed yard and cellars for storage.
The roof was also used for living space and storage. There was little furniture, just three legged stools
and a small table for the whole family, who preferred squatting. There were beds for some, storage
chests for clothes, the floors covered with rush matting. There was no running water and at times a
single well served an entire town. The occupants often slept and ate atop their house’s flat roof, which
was also used for storing food.4
Evidence from the Deir el Medina village reinforces this picture although their workers, about 200 at
any one time over a 400 year period, were privileged because they were working on tombs for the
kings. They received four times the payment of the peasants or tradesmen elsewhere. Their wives were
given slaves for help. Still, their dwellings were similar to those less privileged. Evidence from
Medina is plentiful, consisting of stelae, papyri and ostraca; 1500 literary works have been found.5 An
example of information from ostraca is a shard containing a sketch of a worker using his chisel.6
(Demovic, P.9). The workers worked in ten day cycles with one day off and this seemed to set the
example for other government workers, e.g. laborers in the quarries and mines. 7
The sowing season, Perit, occupied the next four months, October – February. The implements used for
sowing were ploughs and hoes. Ploughshares were crafted of wood or metal, the plough pulled by
cattle or by the head of the household, in the latter case guided by the wife or one of the sons. The soil
was loamy but the ploughman still had to grip both plough handles, bend double and lean forward on
the plough with all his might to cut the furrows. The sower, the wife or son, would walk ahead
scattering seed. These were long days of toil. The fact that cattle were used in ploughing indicates that
they were in great supply because cattle produce much less milk when they are worked. Dykes were
‘Ancient Egyptian Quarrying’ http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/egypt/dailylife/housing.htm Accessed 1/08/05
‘Archeology Institute, Tel Aviv University’
http://tau.ac.il/humanities/archaeology/projects/women_language_ramesside.html Accessed 7/08/05
6
Demovic, M. and Hayes, M. ‘Deir el Medina and Pompeii’ Longman. Melbourne. 1996. P9.
7
‘Archeology Institute, Tel Aviv University’
http://www.tau.ac.il/humanities/archeology/projects/women_language_ramesside.html
4
5
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Mr. Slow
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built to channel water to irrigate soil not immediately adjacent to the Nile: the dykes had to be serviced
and the crop tended during this season.8
The months, February – May, Shemou, were the harvest season. Ears of corn grew almost to the height
of harvesters. The reaper stood upright, grasped a good bunch of corn and cut it just below the heads,
laid it on the ground leaving the stubble. Sheaves were carried by donkey or men to the threshing floor
where oxen trod the grain. The chaff was separated from the grain which was stored. The masters, or
tax collectors, then came to take their share.9 It was a time of furious activity. Government granaries
were indispensable because in the absence of a money currency, agricultural yield formed the basis of
the taxation system, so tax collection was crucial. Taxed goods were then re-directed from the state
storehouses as wages and salaries to those not directly involved in food production (officials, artisans,
priests). Wine and linen were also produced by the peasantry. Fishing and hunting game were other
sources of food.
Evidence for the annual agriculture cycle consists of a variety of scenes on the tombs and temples of
upper class officials. Tomb scenes often show the assessment of produce and collection of taxes by
scribes or show how luxuriant the harvests were. An example is a scene from the tomb of Sennedjem, a
craftsman at Deir el Medina. (See Appendix A). In the 4th panel from the bottom, Sennedjem is
harvesting the grain, which has grown to his height; in the third panel he is tilling the land with an ox.
In the 2nd panel fruit trees are shown heavy with fruit, the entire work suggesting a land of plenty.
Harvesting is done with simple sickles.10
A scene from Ptah-hotep’s tomb reinforces this picture. A flute player is helping the laborers do their
work. The laborers are male and wear only loincloths and belts, nothing else, they go barefoot. The
cattle and tureen at the top of the scene suggest a rich source of milk.11 (See Appendix B)
When farmers didn’t pay their tax they got beaten as indicated in Appendix C.12
‘Ancient Egypt’ http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/educate.htm Accessed 10/08/05
Montet, P. op. cit. p.108-111
10
Hurley T. et. al. op. cit. P. 34
11
Hennessey, D. ed. ’Studies in Ancient Egypt’. Thomas. Nelson. Melbourne. 1993. P. 53.
8
9
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Appendix D indicates that the sea was also bountiful.13
As for their dining habits, Egyptians ate with their fingers singly or in pairs; breakfast was not a family
occasion. Here, the head of the house ate bread, cake and drank beer. The two main meals consisted of
vegetables, fruit, bread, cakes, beer, and at times, game. Ordinary Egyptians went to bed early and
arose with the sun.14
Cooking was also done by crouching, with utensils laid out on the floor. Mats were made from flax,
papyrus, palm fibre or grass.15 Foodstuffs available even to agricultural workers were figs, oil, honey,
bread, cakes, melons, watermelons, cucumbers, fish, birds, and at times, meat from cattle as well as
milk. There were no cocks or hens.16 Cooking was done in clay ovens or over open fires on roofs or out
in the open. Food was baked, boiled, stewed, fried, grilled or roasted. From items found in the tombs
we know they used storage jars, bowls, pots, pans, ladles, sieves and whisks. The dishes were made of
clay and the utensils of earthenware.17
Egyptians desired cleanliness, and washed three to four times daily in the Nile. The agricultural
workers bathed daily in the Nile or from a water basin at home. Oil was applied to prevent the skin
from drying out in a harsh climate. Everyone wore make-up; it was supposed to have magical qualities
for protection and healing. Peasants had short or shaved hair.18 Everyone in Egypt wore some type of
jewelry: rings, amulets, earrings, armlets, bracelets or anklets. Clothing styles didn’t change much.
Clothes were made of linen from flax. Male commoners wore a belt and loincloth when working and a
short skirt called a kilt when not working. Women wore a straight fitting dress held up by straps around
the house. Children usually ran around nude during the summer.19
12
Ibid, P. 54.
Ibid,P. 54
14
Montet, P. op. cit. pp.109
15
‘Ancient Egypt – Furniture’ http://nefertiti.iwebland.com/timelines/topics/furniture.htm Accessed 31/07/05
16
Montet, P. op. cit. p.75
17
‘Egypt – Daily Life’ http://www2.sptimes.com/Egypt/EgyptCredit.4.2.html Accessed 1/08/05
18
Ibid
19
Ibid
13
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The Nile offered entertainment and relaxation for fishing, boating, swimming, hunting crocodiles,
hippopotamuses and boat games. Ancient Egyptians loved music and played the lute, harp and lyre
held in honor of the gods. At a national religious festival a statue of the god was carried through the
streets, led by priests followed by a huge crowd who were then fed by the temple. Some gods were
celebrated by the people without the priests. Bes is one such god. The people would parade down the
street dressed in masks of Bes and dancers and tambourine players would follow. The people would
join in the singing from their rooftops. The children would run alongside the dancers singing and
clapping their hands.20
Religious beliefs shaped the way everyone in Egypt thought and acted. All were certain there was life
after death, thus the building of the great funerary temples such as Deir el Bahari and tombs for royalty
at Thebes. Ordinary people were rarely allowed into the temples of the gods, just the forecourts, but
they felt close to their gods. Ears were carved on the outside walls of temples so prayers and longings
could be whispered into these ears. The people felt that the god heard every word.21
In the agricultural villages, laborers could relieve themselves amongst the flora. P. Montet indicates
that in the towns, this could not be done and points out that refuse could be thrown into the street but he
believes this not to be the case. He states that even the poor took a lot of trouble to make their houses
comfortable and pleasant and to protect themselves against insects, rats, lizards and snakes. As
evidence he explains that Egyptians smeared fat on sacks to keep out the rats; used fish spawn against
fleas and onion seed at the mouth of snake holes to keep the snake inside. This, he says, is evidence of
a wish to keep houses clean and fresh and which must have made the authorities to arrange for the
disposal of dirty water and refuse, though, he admits, “we have no documentary evidence for it.”22
Montet says Egyptians had a passion for putting everything in writing so it is likely that on marriage,
husband and wife would appear before an official who registered their names and details of the
marriage settlement. An ostrakon found at Thebes says that the husband contributed 2/3rds and the wife
‘Egypt – Daily Life’ http://www2.sptimes.com/Egypt/EgyptCredit.4.2.html
‘Archeology Institute, Tel Aviv University’.
http://www.tau.ac.il/humanities/archeology/projects/women_language_ramesside.html
22
Montet, P. op. cit. p.25
20
21
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1/3rd of the settlement. If either died the survivor enjoyed the income of the whole but could only
dispose of the proportion he contributed.23 Divorce was a simple matter of advising the scribe and
moving out. Women were not the property of their husbands. They could take their grievances to court
and there be granted equal status to that of their husbands. It was clear in the love songs presented in
papyri in London and Paris that while many marriages were arranged by the parents, young people
enjoyed a good deal of freedom.24 The love songs preserved in papyri are similar to those of today, e.g.
When we kiss and her warm lips are half open
I fly cloud high without beer!
Or
You are lovely to me
As clean robes to the flesh of the gods25
Every Egyptian wanted a son and were great child lovers. The scribe advises to marry young and have
plenty of children. Mothers carried their babies against their breast in a kind of sling leaving their arms
free. Suckling occurred for three years. Children could be fed for almost nothing living on papyrus
shoots and raw or boiled roots.26 The temples of Memphis, Amorna, Thebes, and the Staeles of Abydos
show plenty of pictures of children.27 Children could be fed for almost nothing living on papyrus shoots
and raw or boiled roots.28
The peasants lived a rich and varied life. Their work was communal, they could expect good harvests
most times, they shared a religious bond which was deeply felt and celebrated a great many religious
festivals, which meant time off work. They had large families as the Nile’s abundance provided for this
and more hands made their work easier. Women enjoyed a high legal and customary status.
Tradesmen’s skills were needed and appreciated. For the ordinary Egyptian under the Ramessides, the
good moments of life outnumbered the bad.
23
Ibid, p. 45
Ibid, p.55
25
Demovic, M. and Hayes M. op. cit. P 21.
26
Ibid, p.57-60
27
Montet, P. op. cit. Pp.56
28
Ibid, p.57-60
24
Rachael Roseberg
12 Ancient History
Mr. Slow
7
Bibliography
Books
1. Demovic, M. and Hayes, M. ‘Deir el Medina and Pompeii’ Longman. Melbourne. 1996.
2. Hennessey, D. ed. ’Studies in Ancient Egypt’. Thomas. Nelson. Melbourne. 1993
3. Herodotus. As cited in Hurley, T. et. al. ‘Antiquity 2. Second Edition’. Oxford University Press. 2000.
4. Montet, P. ‘Everyday Life in Ancient Egypt in the days of Ramesses the Great’. Edward Arnold.
USA. 1958.
Websites
1. ‘Ancient Egypt’ http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/educate.htm Accessed 10/08/05
2. ‘Ancient Egypt – Furniture’ http://nefertiti.iwebland.com/timelines/topics/furniture.htm Accessed
31/07/05
3. ‘Ancient Egyptian Quarrying’
http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/egypt/dailylife/housing.htm Accessed 1/08/05
4. ‘Archeology Institute, Tel Aviv University’
http://www.tau.ac.il/humanities/archaeology/projects/women_language_ramesside.html Accessed
7/08/05
5.
‘Daily life Ancient Egypt’. http:www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/Egypt/dailylife/housing.htm
Accessed 04/08/05.
6. ‘Egypt – Daily Life’ http://www2.sptimes.com/Egypt/EgyptCredit.4.2.html