VO LC AN IC LA ND SC A PE S
SECTION SIX
Information Book
(a)
Formation of Volcanoes
When you shake a lemonade bottle and unscrew the cap the lemonade froths
out of the bottle. This happens because unscrewing the cap releases pressure
and allows the gas bubbles to rise, carrying the lemonade with them.
This explains how hot, gassy molten rock, called magma, can rise to the
surface from deep in the Earth. Where the Earth’s crust is weak and breaks
(faults) occur in the rock, pressure is released and magma can rise up the
break to the surface, where it flows out as lava.
As the lava cools crystals form and it solidifies into an igneous rock, such as
basalt (Fig 6.1).
Fig 6.1: Enlarged view of basalt
Note the interlocking
c r ys t a l s t r u c t u r e
Because the crystals lock together the rock is hard. Ash may also be blow n
out of the volcano, so that layers of ash and lava may build up on top of each
other to depths of many hundreds of metres.
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(b)
Types of Volcano
(i)
Central Type
Magma rises up a round pipe and escapes to the surface through
an opening called a vent (Fig 6.2 and Fig 6.3).
Fig 6.2: Central type volcano
MAGMA RISES UP PIPE
Fig 6.3: Cross-section of central type volcano
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(ii)
Fissure Type
Very runny magma rises up long cracks in the Earth’s crust.
Small cones may form along the crack (Fig 6.4).
Fig 6.4: Fissure eruption
(c)
Volcanic Activity in the British Isles
There are no active volcanoes in Britain today, but in the distant past there
have been (Fig 6.5).
Volcanic rocks were formed in the British Isles at the following times:
500 million years ago in Snowdonia, the Lake District and Southern Ireland.
350-400 million years ago in Central Scotland, Ben Nevis, Glencoe and the
Cheviot Hills.
60 million years ago in Western Scotland and Northern Ireland.
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Fig 6.5: Volcanic rocks in the British Isles
350-400 million
ye a r s o l d
60 million
ye a r s o l d
500
million
ye a r s o l d
During the many millions of years since the volcanoes erupted they have been
deeply eroded. Consequently, in the British Isles we do not see the features
of an active volcanic landscape such as cones and craters. Instead we see the
eroded remnants of volcanic landscapes.
(d)
Lava Plateau
(i)
124
Very runny lava, such as that which forms basalt, can flow over
very long distances before solidifying. Often these lavas come
from fissure eruptions. Huge eruptions of this type occurred in
Central Scotland 400 million years ago and in Northern Ireland
and the North-West Highlands of Scotland 60 million years ago.
Great thicknesses of basalt were left, for example in the Antrim
Plateau in Ireland and the Kilpatrick, Ochil, Campsie, Sidlaw and
Pentland Hills in Scotland. In some places the successive lava
flows give the landscape a ‘stepped’ appearance (Fig 6.6). Since
the lavas are roughly horizontal, the surface left after erosion is a
relatively flat upland – a plateau.
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Fig 6.6: Lava flows, Antrim, Northern Ireland
In Glencoe, Ben Nevis, the Lake District and Snowdonia the
vertical faces of the lava flows provide steep crags for rock
climbing.
(ii)
Sometimes, as the lava cooled and contracted, cracks occurred in
such a way that hexagonal columns were formed (Fig 6.7).
Fig 6.7: Columnar jointing in basalt
The most notable examples of these are at Fingal’s Cave, Staffa
and at the Giant’s Causeway, Antrim (Fig 6.8).
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Fig 6.8: Giant’s Causeway, Antrim
(e)
Dykes and Sills
Magma can be injected as sheets into the overlying rock. The magma can
cool and solidify before it reaches the surface. A dyke (shaped like a wall) is
a roughly vertical sheet intrusion which cuts across other rocks. A sill is a
sheet intruded between the beds of other rocks (Fig 6.9).
Fig 6.9: Intrusion of dyke and sill into sedimentary rocks
beds of sedimentary rock
surface
sill
d yk e
magma chamber
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As time goes by the overlying rocks are eroded, exposing dykes and sills.
Since they consist of igneous rocks, they are hard and less easily worn away
than the surrounding sedimentary rocks, and they stand out from the
landscape (Fig 6.10).
Fig 6.10: Dyke and sill exposed by erosion
Fig 6.11 below shows a dyke protruding from the shore in Arran.
Dykes are particularly common in the West of Scotland (Fig 6.12) and in
some cases they stretch into Northern England.
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Fig 6.12: Dykes in Scotland
As a result of their angle of intrusion sills are often eroded to give a steep
slope on one side and a gentle slope on the other (Fig 6.13).
Fig 6.13: Contour pattern of a sill
Like lava flows, when sills cool they can crack into hexagonal columns (Fig
6.14).
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Fig 6.14: Sill at Drumadoon Point, Arran
s i l l wi t h
columnar
jointing
sandstones
scree
Some well known sills in Scotland are those on which Stirling Castle and
Wallace’s Monument are sited, and Salisbury Crags in Edinburgh. Sills are
also associated with rocky outcrops on the northern approaches to the Forth
Bridge, at Kirk o’ Shotts on the M8 and at White Craigs overlooking Loch
Leven.
The Great Whin Sill extends for 130 kilometres across Northern England, at
an average thickness of 30 metres. Hadrian’s Wall, which was built to defend
the Romans in England from attacks from Scotland, lies partly along its crest.
(f)
Volcanic Plug
Once a volcano becomes extinct the forces of weathering an d erosion start to
reduce its size. Eventually all the volcanic rocks may get worn away except
for the hard igneous rock in the vent. This forms an isolated steep hill, a
volcanic plug (Fig 6.15).
Fig. 6.15: Formation of volcanic plug
vo l c a n i c
plug
o r i g i n a l p o s i t i o n o f vo l c a n o –
now eroded (e.g., Arthur’s
Seat, Edinburgh)
sedimentary
rocks
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When erosion continues into the softer sedimentary rocks below, the much
harder igneous rock will form a particularly steep -sided plug (Fig 6.16).
Fig 6.16
Steep-sided plug
(e.g., Dumbarton
Rock)
sedimentary rocks
igneous rock
There are a number of plugs in Central Scotland, sometimes topped by
castles, since, being steep on all sides, they form good defensive positions.
Among the best known are Arthur’s Seat and Castle Rock in Edinburgh,
Dumbarton Rock, North Berwick Law and the nearby Bass Rock, Ailsa Craig,
and Loudoun Hill near Darvel.
(g)
Crag and Tail
Some plugs are not steep on all sides but form a crag and tail – this is a steep
crag rising to a high point from where a gently sloping ridge (the ‘tail’)
descends.
These features are found particularly in the East of Central Scotland. North
Berwick Law is an example and Edinburgh contains several, including Castle
Rock and Calton Hill.
They formed during the last Ice Age when an ice sheet moved eastwards
down the Forth Valley. Where the ice confronted a volcanic plug, the hard
igneous rock was not so easily eroded as the surrounding soft sedimentary
rocks. However, to the east of the plug the sedimentary rocks were not
eroded, because they were protected by the ‘shield’ of the hard volcanic plug.
Thus, the plug forms the ‘crag’ and the protected soft sedimentary rocks, the
‘tail’ (Fig 6.17).
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Fig. 6.17: Formation of crag and tail
The most famous example is Castle Rock in Edinburgh, with the castle being
built on the crag and the Royal Mile running down the crest of the tail (Fig
6.18).
Fig. 6.18: Edinburgh Castle and the Royal Mile – a crag and tail
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Activity Sheets
Outcomes
Intermediate 2
Knowledge and Understanding
Identify main scenic areas associated with volcanic landscapes.
Characteristics, formation and named examples of the following landscape
features:
lava plateaus, dykes, sills, volcanic plugs, crag and tail.
GMTs
Identify above features on photographs, sketches and diagrams.
Draw annotated sketches from photographs.
Correlate contour map with geology map, using overlay.
Orientate OS map to identify named places in landscape views.
Conduct experiments.
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Your teacher will show you an experiment using
soda water or lemonade or VIDEO.
1.
What happens when the bottle is shaken and the cap is suddenly
released?
Section 6 (a): Formation of Volcanoes
2.
What is magma?
3.
What is lava?
4.
Explain how magma is able to rise from deep in the crust to the Earth’s
surface.
5.
What type of rock is formed when magma cools?
6.
Name an example of this type of rock.
7.
Explain why these rocks are hard.
8.
What other material is blown out of a volcano?
Section 6 (b): Types of Volcano
9.
Draw a diagram of a central type volcano and label its features.
10.
In what type of eruption does lava emerge from a long crack in the
Earth’s surface?
Section 6 (c): Volcanic Activity in the British Isles
11.
When were volcanoes last active in the British Isles?
12.
When were there active volcanoes in central Scotland?
13.
In which of the following parts of the British Isles were volc anoes most
recently active:
Lake District: Snowdonia: Northern Ireland: Central Scotland?
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14.
Why are there no volcanic craters visible in the British Isles?
Checkpoint 1
Answers
1–8
10–14
Answer
9
Section 6 (d)(i): Lava Plateau
15.
Name a rock formed from very runny lava.
16.
What type of eruption often produces runny lava?
17.
What is a plateau?
18.
Name three places in the British Isles where lava plateaux are located.
19.
Look at Fig Q19. Draw a sketch to show the main features of th e
landscape. Label it to show lava flows, stepped hillside, plateau
surface.
Fig Q19: Campsie Fells
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20.
Why does the hillside have a stepped appearance?
21.
What outdoor sport attracts people to the lavas of Glencoe?
Your teacher will show you what
happens when
hot glass is suddenly cooled, or VIDEO.
Note: for this demonstration everyone should wear safety goggles.
22.
What happens when the glass is cooled?
Section 6 (d)(ii)
23.
When lava cools, what shapes are created as it cracks?
24.
Name two places in the British Isles where there are good examples of
this structure.
25.
Look at Fig Q25.
With the help of an atlas match the numbers to the lava plateau and hills
below:
Cheviot Hills
Ochil Hills
Mull
Morvern
Antrim Plateau
Sidlaw Hills
Pentland Hills
Campsie Fells
Skye
Renfrew Heights
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Fig Q25: Lava plateaux/hills in the British Isles
Checkpoint 2
Answers
15–18
20–25
Section 6 (e): Dykes and Sills
26.
Look at Fig Q26.
Fig Q26: Block diagram
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Answer
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VO LC AN IC LA ND SC A PE S
(a)
(b)
(c)
Match numbers 1 and 2 to dyke and sill.
Which intrusion lies between the layers of other rocks?
Which intrusion cuts vertically across other rocks?
27.
Why do the dyke and sill in Fig Q26 appear at the surface?
28.
Why do they form the highest ground in Fig Q26?
29.
Look at Fig Q29. Why was the Great Whin Sill a good choice of site
for Hadrian’s Wall?
Fig Q29: Great Whin Sill
30.
Where in the British Isles are dykes most common?
31.
Why does the outcrop of a sill often have one steep and one gentle
slope?
32.
Why are sills often associated with waterfalls, for example High Force
on the River Tees?
33.
Name an island in the West of Scotland where you find dykes.
34.
Name an example of a sill in Scotland.
Checkpoint 3
Answers
26–34
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Section 6 (f): Volcanic Plug
35.
With the aid of a diagram explain how a volcanic plug is formed.
36.
Why do volcanic plugs have steep sides?
37.
Name three examples of volcanic plugs in Central Scotland.
38.
Why are castles often built on plugs?
39.
Look at Fig Q39.
(a)
With the help of an atlas match the numbers 1 to 3 to the names of
the sills below:
Stirling Sill, Great Whin Sill, Lomond Hill.
(b)
Match the numbers 4 to 10 to the volcanic plugs below:
Arthur’s Seat (Edinburgh)
Castle Rock (Edinburgh)
Loudoun Hill (near Darvel)
Ailsa Craig
Dumbarton Rock
North Berwick Law
Bass Rock
Fig Q39: Selected volcanic plugs and sills
1
2
10
5
•Glasgow
9
7
8
6
4
•Carlisle
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Section 6 (g): Crag and Tail
40.
Describe the appearance of a crag and tail.
41.
What type of rock forms the ‘crag’?
42.
What type of rock forms the ‘tail’?
43.
Name two Scottish examples of a crag and tail.
44.
With the aid of a diagram explain the formation of a crag and tail.
45.
Look at Fig Q45A and Fig Q45B.
(a)
Name the two highest features shown on the contour map.
(b)
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(c)
Look carefully at the contour patterns in Fig Q45A.
Trace Fig Q45B.
Lay tracing over contour map.
Which rock type forms the highest ground?
Explain your answer to (iii).
(i)
On top of what landscape feature is the castle situated?
(ii) On what feature is the Royal Mile situated?
(iii) What type of structure is Salisbury Crags?
Fig Q45A: Contour map, Edinburgh
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Fig Q45B: Geology map, Edinburgh
igneous rock
igneous rock
0
0
½ mile
500m
sedimentary rock
OS Project Map 1:50,000 Edinburgh
46.
Look at Fig 46: aerial view of Edinburgh
(a)
Match the numbers 1 to 8 to the following places:
Castle
Old Town
Salisbury Crags
(b)
Calton Hill
New Town
Arthur’s Seat
What numbers apply to the landscape features below
(some numbers apply to more than one feature)?
sill, plug, crag, tail.
140
Waverley Station
Portobello
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Fig Q46: Edinburgh – view towards east from above 247736
Photo: Aerographica/Patricia & Angus Macdonald/P & A Macdonald
Checkpoint 4
Answers
36–43
45, 46
Answers
35, 44
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Extension exercises
Use resources provided by your teacher to help you do the following.
E1.
Why are some lavas sticky (viscous) while others are runny?
E2.
Draw a sketch of a volcano which erupts sti cky lava.
E3.
Draw a sketch of a volcano which erupts runny lava.
A blank map of the world.
E4.
Shade in the active volcanic zones of the world.
E5.
Calculate the shortest distance from Scotland to an active volcano.
E6.
How are volcanoes of use to people?
Answers
E1–E6
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S TU D EN T AN S WE R S H E E T S
STUDENT ANSWER SHEETS
Weathering and Erosion
Checkpoint 1
1.
Weathering is the process by which rocks are broken up in the place
where they are sitting, whereas erosion is the process by which the land
is worn away by moving wind, water and ice.
2.
B.
3.
The rocks break up.
4.
It gets greater.
5.
They get bigger.
6.
It will break up.
7.
A slope of angular rock fragments.
8.
Teacher check.
9
(a)
(b)
10.
It dissolves carbon dioxide from the air, forming weak carbonic acid.
11.
They are widened.
Nothing.
It reacts with the acid.
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Weathering and Erosion
Checkpoint 2
12.
Quarrying
Railway cutting
Tunnels
Footpaths (especially on steep slopes).
13.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
14.
Steep slope.
15.
Sand.
16.
Gravel is heavier and therefore less easily moved.
17.
They are moved more quickly.
18.
It increases.
19.
They are moved more easily.
20.
By solution in water;
by suspension in water;
by bouncing along the bed;
by rolling along the bed.
21.
By rolling along the bed.
22.
By suspension in water.
23.
A (when slope is steep) and C (when discharge is high).
24.
The material carried by a river.
25.
Where the slope is steepest.
26.
Move upstream.
144
Erosion
Deposition
Deposition
Erosion
Transport.
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S TU D EN T AN S WE R S H E E T S
Weathering and Erosion
Checkpoint 2 (continued)
27.
Narrow with steep sides.
28.
Sand is deposited and a delta forms.
29.
Being rolled along the bed and banging into other pebbles knocks off
the sharp edges.
30.
Teacher check.
31.
Gorge.
32.
V-shape.
33.
The river’s energy is reduced so that it can no longer carry the
alluvium.
34.
A loop in a river.
35.
Teacher check.
36.
On the outside of the bend.
37, 38, 39. Teacher check.
40.
Currents in the sea may carry the alluvium away.
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Weathering and Erosion
Checkpoint 3
41.
In stormy weather.
42.
(i)
(ii)
As a wave breaks air is compressed into cracks in the rock. The
rock is loosened so that the fragments are washed off.
Pebbles are repeatedly picked up from the sea bed and hurled
against the cliff, wearing it away.
43.
The fragments are constantly rolled back and forth by the waves, so that
sharp edges are knocked off.
44.
As pebbles bang together they break into smaller and smaller fragments,
eventually becoming sand.
45.
(i)
(ii)
From broken shells.
From material washed into the sea by rivers.
46.
eros i o n
de p os it i on
eros i o n
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Weathering and Erosion
Checkpoint 4
47.
Cold.
48.
Greenland, Norway, Switzerland, Iceland, Austria, France, Italy,
Canada, USA, India, Nepal. If you have listed any others, ask y our
teacher if they are correct.
49.
By compaction.
50.
An ice sheet is a large mass of ice covering a wide area, whereas a
valley glacier is confined to a valley.
51.
10,000 years ago.
52.
To the River Thames.
53.
(a)
(b)
Nothing
The paint is worn away.
54.
(i)
Plucking – loose rocks on the valley floor become frozen into the
glacier and are ‘plucked’ away as the glacier moves on.
Abrasion – the plucked rocks frozen into the bottom of the glacier
act like the teeth of a file and scratch and sc rape the rocks that the
ice moves over.
(ii)
55.
Material transported by a glacier.
56.
Teacher check.
57.
If the glacier melts at one particular spot for a long time.
58.
Angular.
59.
Rounded.
60.
The meltwater rolls the pebbles so that sharp edges are s moothed off.
On the other hand, moraine is not rolled – it is frozen in the ice, so
fragments remain angular.
61.
They are sorted by the running water. When the current is strong large
fragments are laid down. When the current is weak only small
fragments are deposited.
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Weathering and Erosion
Checkpoint 5
62.
The dry sand.
63.
Small.
64.
Erosion.
65.
Deposition.
66.
(a)
(b)
67.
Bare gravel patches in high mountains;
ploughed fields in a dry spring;
along coastlines where there are extensive sandy beaches.
68, 69.
Sahara Desert
This is an arid area where there is very little moisture and very
few plants hold the soil together.
Teacher check.
70.
Good farmland can be buried by sand.
71.
Plant fast-growing marram grass and coniferous trees.
72.
(a)
(b)
(c)
73.
Nature reserves and golf courses.
74.
Teacher check.
148
from west to east.
A
C.
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S TU D EN T AN S WE R S H E E T S
Rocks
Checkpoint 1
(b)
Igneous rock – sharp-edged crystals
Sedimentary rock – rounded grains.
More likely to see tiny surfaces glinting in the igneous rock.
2.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Igneous rock
Crystals
Grains.
3.
Harder rocks are more resistant to weathering and erosion than softer
rocks.
4.
Igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic.
5.
Molten magma cools down and becomes solid.
6.
They have a strong interlocking crystal structure.
7.
Quickly; small; grow; slowly; large; long.
8.
(i)
Slowly
(ii) Quickly
(iii) Medium.
9.
Insulated; medium or coarse; extrusive; quickly; fine.
10.
In order from top to bottom:
extrusive; quickly; fine; medium; intrusive; slowly; coarse; density;
magma.
11.
Gabbro has cooled slowly at depth, so that crystals have had time to
grow, whereas basalt was lava that cooled quickly as it flowed over the
earth’s surface.
12.
Gabbro has large sharp crystals.
13.
Granite contains 30% quartz which is a white or colourless mineral,
whereas gabbro has no quartz but more dark minerals.
14.
Teacher check.
1.
(a)
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Rocks
Checkpoint 2
15.
Conglomerate, sandstone, mudstone.
16.
They are compacted by the weight of overlying rocks and cemented
together by minerals.
17.
Coal.
18.
Limestone.
19.
Hot.
20.
The preserved remains or traces of plants and animals.
21.
Worm burrows, dinosaur footprints.
22.
They consist of separate fragments like sand grains which can easily be
broken off, whereas igneous rocks have a strong interlocking crystal
structure.
23.
They get smaller.
24.
Yes.
25.
Bedding.
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Rocks
Checkpoint 3
26.
(a)
(b)
(c)
27, 28.
Damp clay
Dried clay
Fired clay
flexible
brittle
hard
soft
inflexible
tough
plastic
weak
strong
becomes plastic
when water added
non-plastic
non-plastic
remains non-plastic
when water added
Damp clay.
Dried clay.
Teacher check.
29.
Fired clay.
30.
They recrystallise.
31.
The heat of an igneous intrusion.
32.
When mountains are pushed up a great deal of heat and pressure is
generated. Deep within the mountain range huge volumes of rock
recrystallise. The high pressure causes the mineral grains to line up to
produce a layering called foliation.
33.
Regional metamorphism.
34.
It has been more strongly metamorphosed.
35.
They are usually destroyed by the heat or the pressure.
36.
Metamorphic rocks are harder because they have an interlocking crystal
structure, whereas sedimentary rocks consist of separate fragments.
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Rocks
Checkpoint 3 (continued)
37.
38.
152
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
Igneous rocks
Sedimentary rocks
Metamorphic rocks
gabbro
basalt
granite
sandstone
chalk
coal
mudstone
conglomerate
limestone
slate
gneiss
schist
Metamorphic and igneous
Sedimentary
Igneous
Igneous
Igneous
Sedimentary
Igneous.
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
S TU D EN T AN S WE R S H E E T S
Rocks
Checkpoint 4
E1.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
limestone
conglomerate
basalt
slate
gabbro
schist
sandstone
mudstone.
E2.
Cotswolds – limestone
Yorkshire Wolds – chalk
East Anglia – clay
Peak District – millstone grit
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Glaciated Uplands
Checkpoint 1
1.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
2.
A large armchair-shaped hollow high on a mountainside.
3.
(a)
(b)
(c)
4.
Rock climbing, skiing.
5, 6.
Cairngorms
Cuillin Hills
Torridon
Ben Nevis/Glencoe
Arran
Lake District National Park
Snowdonia National Park
Loch Lomond
Macgillycuddy’s Reeks.
coire
combe or cove
cwm.
Teacher check.
7.
A narrow knife-edged ridge.
8.
Striding Edge, Forcan Ridge.
9.
Teacher check.
154
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
S TU D EN T AN S WE R S H E E T S
Glaciated Uplands
Checkpoint 2
10.
A well defined pyramid-shaped peak with a small summit and steep
slopes on at least three sides – usually over 800m.
11.
Snowdon, Ben Lui.
12.
Teacher check.
13.
A straight steep-sided valley with a wide flat floor.
14.
Borrowdale.
15.
Teacher check.
16.
A shoulder of high land which slopes gently near the top, but is very
steep at the bottom.
17.
The Three Sisters in Glencoe.
18.
Teacher check.
19.
A tributary valley of a main U-shaped valley. It is smaller than the
main valley and its floor is at a higher level.
20.
Lost Valley in Glencoe.
21.
Teacher check.
22.
A long narrow lake occupying a U-shaped valley.
23.
Lake Windermere, Loch Earn.
24.
Teacher check.
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
155
S TU D EN T AN S WE R S H E E T S
Glaciated Uplands
Checkpoint 3
25.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Ribbon lake
U-shaped valley
Tarn
Pyramidal peak
Arête
Corrie
Hanging valley
Truncated spur.
26.
(a)
(b)
Teacher check
1.
Pyramidal peak
2.
Arête
3.
Corrie
4.
Tarn
5.
Hanging valley
6.
Truncated spur
7.
Waterfall
8.
Ribbon lake
9.
U-shaped valley.
27.
Teacher check.
28.
(a)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Devil’s Point
Coire an Lochain
Ben Macdui
Braeriach
Pools of Dee
Lurcher’s Crag.
(b)
A
B
C
D
U-shaped valley
Corrie
Tarn
Truncated spur.
156
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
S TU D EN T AN S WE R S H E E T S
Glaciated Uplands
Checkpoint 4
29
(a)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Ben Macdui
Beinn Mheadhoin
Loch Etchachan
Loch Avon
Cairn Gorm.
(b)
A
B
3.
4.
Truncated spur
Hanging valley
Tarn
Ribbon lake.
Glaciated Uplands
Checkpoint 5
30.
Pyramidal peak
Corrie
Truncated spur
U-shaped valley
Arête
Hanging valley
Tarn
148654
1871
180687
1272
178717
150745 to 165725
198739.
Glaciated Uplands
Checkpoint 6
31.
Truncated spur
Arête
Ribbon lake
Pyramidal peak
U-shaped valley
Corrie
Tarn
Hanging valley
817447
794426
8552
866613
7448
7943
803470
887528 to 899512.
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
157
S TU D EN T AN S WE R S H E E T S
Upland Limestone Landscapes
Checkpoint 1
1.
A grey sedimentary rock.
2.
Coral, shell fragments.
3.
Earth movements have lifted the rocks. Since limestone is harder than
most sedimentary rocks it has remained as upland.
4.
It reacts with and is dissolved by rainwater.
5.
Karst.
6.
Between 345 and 310 million years.
7.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
The Burren in western Ireland
Brecon
Mendip Hills
Pennines
Yorkshire Dales
Peak District
North Wales.
Upland Limestone Landscapes
Checkpoint 2
8.
The exposed surface of a limestone bedding plane.
9.
It was scraped off by moving ice.
10.
The small blocks of limestone left standing between grikes.
11.
Grooves in the surface of a limestone pavement.
12,13
158
Teacher check.
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
S TU D EN T AN S WE R S H E E T S
Upland Limestone Landscapes
Checkpoint 3
14.
Permeable.
15.
Impermeable.
16.
Permeable.
17.
Water drains into the limestone down joints and along bedding planes,
enlarging these underground channels by solution and the usual process
of river erosion.
18.
The point at which a stream disappears underground.
19.
Gaping Ghyll on Ingleborough in the Pennines.
20.
Intermittent drainage.
21.
(a)
22.
Teacher check.
23.
A deep, steep-sided narrow valley.
24.
Teacher check.
25.
Cheddar Gorge.
It flows onto limestone where is disappears down Gaping Ghyll, a
swallow hole.
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
159
S TU D EN T AN S WE R S H E E T S
Upland Limestone Landscapes
Checkpoint 4
26.
An icicle-shaped piece of limestone hanging from the ceiling of a cave.
27.
A stumpy column of limestone sticking up from the floor of a cave.
28, 29. Teacher check.
30.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
swallow hole
cavern
limestone pavement
impermeable rock
gorge
beds of limestone
re-emerging stream.
31.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
gorge
swallow hole
limestone beds
pavement
re-emerging stream.
160
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
S TU D EN T AN S WE R S H E E T S
Upland Limestone Landscapes
Checkpoint 5
32.
915643
903646
894657
897642
gorge
limestone pavement
swallow hole
re-emerging stream.
33.
It contains a swallow hole, caves, potholes and intermittent drainage.
34.
Limestone pavement.
Upland Limestone Landscapes
Checkpoint 6
E1.
There is a cave and no surface drainage.
E2.
9993 and 9494.
These squares have intermittent drainage.
E3.
986817
NB 958858 and 009958 are the sources of streams.
E4.
Teacher check.
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
161
S TU D EN T AN S WE R S H E E T S
Coastal Landscapes
Checkpoint 1
1.
Beaches – swimming and sunbathing
Cliff coasts – natural beauty/spectacular scenery, wildlife, walking,
climbing.
2.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
3.
The climate is warmer and they are closest to the biggest cities like
London.
162
Colwyn Bay
Aberystwyth
Weston-super-Mare
Torquay
Bournemouth
Brighton
Margate
Clacton
Scarborough
Skegness
Morecambe
Blackpool
Southport
Eastbourne
Southend
Newquay
Great Yarmouth
Bognor Regis
Largs
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
S TU D EN T AN S WE R S H E E T S
Coastal Landscapes
Checkpoint 2
4.
The sand is eroded more quickly than the clay.
5.
At the base.
6.
Clay, because it is harder than the sand.
7.
Granite (or any other igneous or metamorphic rock)
8.
B eac h
He a dl a nd
D
Bay
E
E
He a dl a nd
9.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
chalk
clay
sands and clay
Chalk is more resistant to erosion than sand or clay, so forms
higher ground.
Chalk and limestone, because they are more resistant than the
other rocks.
Sand and clay because they are softer than chalk and limestone
and so are more easily eroded by the sea.
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
163
S TU D EN T AN S WE R S H E E T S
Coastal Landscapes
Checkpoint 3
10, 11. Teacher check.
12.
If the rocks are either hard or sloping inward.
13.
It moves back.
14.
Immediately off-shore from the cliff would be a wave -cut platform.
15.
Sandy beach in a bay – 695642 – deposition.
Headland and wave-cut platform – 658659 – erosion.
Shingle beach – 665649 – deposition.
16.
Headland – 461830 – erosion.
Bay with sandy beach – 475833 – deposition.
Bay with shingle beach – 447785 – deposition.
Wave-cut platform – 438775 – erosion.
164
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
S TU D EN T AN S WE R S H E E T S
Coastal Landscapes
Checkpoint 4
17.
Teacher check.
18.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fingal’s cave, Island of Staffa
Durdle Door, Dorset
Old Man of Hoy, Orkney
19.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Cliff
Cave
Arch
Stack
Wave-cut platform
Beach
Bay
Headland.
20.
A strip of sand or shingle sticking out from the shore.
21.
Spurn Head.
22.
A ridge of sand, mud or shingle separating the sea from a lagoon.
23.
Slapton Sands, Devon.
24.
A narrow ridge of sand or shingle linking two islands or an island to the
mainland.
25.
Chesil Beach.
}
}
}
or other suitable answers
26, 27. Teacher check.
28.
Barriers called groynes are built at right angles to the coast.
29
(a)
(b)
30.
Spit.
31.
Groynes.
32.
Embankment.
It changes from flowing east to flowing south.
South.
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
165
S TU D EN T AN S WE R S H E E T S
Coastal Landscapes
Checkpoint 5
33.
Tombolo
Bar
Lagoon
Spit
Mud beach
Headland with cliffs
34.
Groynes and embankment.
35.
(a)
(b)
045876
032881
029880
182912
046889
178904
SW – farther SW is a tombolo, so sand must be being washed in
that direction.
NE – a shingle spit is being built out towards the NE.
Coastal Landscapes
Checkpoint 6
36.
166
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
Old Man of Hoy – stack
Bow Fiddle – arch
Sands of Forvie – dunes
Flamborough Head – headland
Spurn Head – spit
White Cliffs of Dover
Seven Sisters – chalk cliffs
The Needles – stacks
Durdle Door – arch
Chesil Beach – tombolo
Slapton Sands – bar
Land’s End – headland
Pembrokeshire National Park – caves, arches, stacks
Great Ormes Head – headland
Giant’s Causeway – wave-cut platform
Fingal’s Cave
Old Man of Stoer – stack.
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
S TU D EN T AN S WE R S H E E T S
Volcanic Landscapes
Checkpoint 1
1.
The soda water (or lemonade) froths out of the bottle.
2.
Hot molten rock.
3.
Magma that flows out over the Earth’s surface.
4.
When a fault occurs in the overlying rocks pressure is released and the
gas in the magma can rise carrying the magma with it.
5.
Igneous.
6.
Basalt (or any other suitable example such as granite).
7.
They have an interlocking crystal structure.
8.
Ash.
9.
Teacher check.
10.
Fissure type.
11.
60 million years ago.
12.
350–400 million years ago.
13.
Northern Ireland.
14.
It is so long since volcanoes were active in the British Isles that they
have been deeply eroded.
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
167
S TU D EN T AN S WE R S H E E T S
Volcanic Landscapes
Checkpoint 2
15.
Basalt.
16.
Fissure eruptions.
17.
A fairly flat upland area.
18.
Antrim Plateau, Kilpatrick, Ochil, Campsie, Sidlaw and Pentland Hills.
19.
Teacher check.
20.
It is made up of a succession of lava flows.
21.
Rock climbing.
22.
It cracks.
23.
Hexagonal columns.
24.
Fingal’s Cave, Staffa and Giant’s Causeway, Antrim.
25.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
168
Skye
Mull
Antrim Plateau
Cheviot Hills
Pentland Hills
Renfrew Heights
Campsie Fells
Ochil Hills
Sidlaw Hills
Morvern.
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
S TU D EN T AN S WE R S H E E T S
Volcanic Landscapes
Checkpoint 3
26.
(a)
(b)
(c)
1.
Dyke
2.
Sill
Sill
Dyke
27.
The overlying rocks have been eroded.
28.
Igneous rocks are hard and not easily eroded, unlike the surrounding
rocks.
29.
The sill forms a ridge of high ground which is a good defensive
position.
30.
West of Scotland.
31.
They are intruded at a gentle angle, so a gentle slope will form parallel
to the sill.
32.
The igneous rock of the sill is difficult for the river to erode, unlike the
softer rocks beyond it. Thus, the river cascades over the hard sill and
erodes the softer rocks downstream.
33.
Arran, Mull, Rum, Skye.
34.
Salisbury Crags, Edinburgh or Stirling Sill.
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
169
S TU D EN T AN S WE R S H E E T S
Volcanic Landscapes
Checkpoint 4
35.
Teacher check.
36.
The plug is made of hard igneous rock in a vertical pipe or vent.
37.
Arthur’s Seat, Castle Rock (Edinburgh), Dumbarton Rock, North
Berwick Law, Bass Rock, Ailsa Craig, Loudoun Hill.
38.
Being higher than the surrounding land, they have good defensive
positions.
39.
(a)
1. Lomond Hills
2. Stirling Sill
3. Great Whin Sill.
(b)
4. Ailsa Craig
5. Dumbarton Rock
6. Loudoun Hill
7. Castle Rock
8. Arthur’s Seat
9. North Berwick Law
10. Bass Rock.
40.
A steep crag rising to a high point from where a gently sloping ridge
(the ‘tail’) descends.
41.
Igneous.
42.
Sedimentary rock.
43.
North Berwick Law, Castle Rock (Edinburgh), Calton Hill (Edinburgh).
44.
Teacher check.
45.
(a)
(b)
(c)
170
Salisbury Crags and Castle
Basalt forms the highest ground because it is harder than the
surrounding sedimentary rocks and thus is less easily eroded.
(i)
Crag
(ii) Tail
(iii) Sill.
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
S TU D EN T AN S WE R S H E E T S
Volcanic Landscapes
Checkpoint 4 (continued)
46.
(a)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Castle
New Town
Portobello
Waverley Station
Old Town
Arthur’s Seat
Calton Hill
Salisbury Crags
(b)
Sill – 8
Plug – 1, 6, 7
Crag – 1
Tail – 5.
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
171