Thematic Network: The Social Problem and Societal Problematisation of Men and
Masculinities
ESTONIAN NATIONAL REPORT ON NEWSPAPER REPRESENTATIONS ON
MEN AND MEN’S PRACTICES
WORKPACKAGE 26 , November 2001
Voldemar Kolga
1. KEY POINTS
(i)
Three papers were surveyed: Postimees (largest circulation national
broadsheet), Eesti Päevaleht (the second largest circulation broadsheet ) and SLÕhtuleht (largest circulation national tabloid). These newspapers publish some
articles on men but this is usually in an agendered or gender-implicit way. There are,
for example, many articles on president election rally, sports, politics and business
that are mostly on men, but they do not discuss or address gender. There were a
small number of articles on men in a gender-explicit way. Small numbers of articles
in printed media is someway compensated by live discussions in Internet portals.
(ii)
There is no significant differences between three newspapers; all the devote
almost same quantity articles on men; tabloid (SL-Õhtuleht) gives more space to
violence and Postimees (quality) more to work and home.
(iii) Violence was at the first place (40% of all titles), three other topics were
divided more equally (ca 20%), however violence nad home and work got same space
in newspapers. It means that articles on violence were relatively short.
(iv)
The qualitative analyses reveals that gender is mostly presented in a
traditional way, with inequality represented as deriving from nature of man and
women.
2. THE NATIONAL MEDIA AND PRESS BACKGROUND AND CONTEXT
2.1. Newspapers in Estonia: a short historical review and current state.
Newspapers has been considered as the most important tool in education and civilization
of Estonians. The idea that Estonians were civilized thanks to newspapers is part on
national consciousness. In accordance with census data in tsarist Russia (1897) 97%
Estonians were literal was certainly result of newspapers, not bible reading.
The first newspaper “Revalishe Post-Zeitung” appeared in 1689, however the first
Estonian language weekly newspaper “Tarto maa rahva Näddali Leht “ has been published
in 1806, more than hundred year later. Daily newspapers began to appear ca 1860-80s in
Estonia, and the newspapers became the major factor in awakening and forming of
national identity of Estonians. Finally the Republic of Estonia was established in 1918.
After the Soviet occupation mass media became the tool of communist ideology. At the
end of the Soviet regime in 1985 it was printed 447 copies per 1 000 persons that was
very high result in the world. Two newspapers “Noorte Hääl” (The youngers ´s voice”)
and “Rahva Hääl” (The people`s voice”) had circulations more than 150 000 copies.
“Sirp ja vasar”, newspaper of intellectuals had circulation more than 70 000 copies.
Personally I remember as I awaked up early Friday morning to buy this newspaper
otherwise you did not find deficit newspaper in kiosks. Price of daily newspaper was
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very low, 2 kopeks as matches box , and this intellectual newspaper cost was 10 kopeks.
Now prices are very high to compare former time.
All media was under impact of communist ideology, however directly communist journal
“Eesti Kommunist” (Estonian Communist) has circulation only 16 000 copies (note that it
was obligatory to order this journal to institutions and libraries) to compare with “Siluett”
(fashion journal) 300 000 copies what was achieved thanks Russian language copies;
women´s journal “Nõukogude Naine” (Soviet Women) has circulation 175 000 copies, etc
(all data from year 1985). It means that even under communist regime people had
possibility to make choices pro or contra communism by reading this or other editions.
After regaining independence in 1991 media market became free, privately owned, and
independent from state regulation. Only a few newspapers and journals are now
supported by state, but it really does not mean state involvement into publishing policy.
For instance, “Sirp” follower of intellectual newspaper from Soviet times has government
donation. In spite of it circulation is awfully low, only ca 5 000 copies of this weekly is
published nowadays (without donation this quality edition should be closed). The
following table will demonstrate what has happen in newspapers market of Estonia.
Table 1
Number of titles of newspapers (at the end of year)
Year
Titles
Estonian
language
Dailies
Dailies in
Estonian
1980
43
-
1985
49
-
1990
169
110
1995
196
110
1997
102
74
1999
105
73
2000
109
82
-
-
11
-
19
14
15
11
17
13
16
12
The first, regaining national independence has caused the explosion in the media market:
the number of newspapers titles has been increased ca 4 times compare with Soviet time.
It indicates on the beginning of differentiation and /or segmentation of the homogenous
society, there are appearing different interest group who liked to have tools – newspapers
to express own ideas.
I ´ill like suppose the following index: the relation of population quantity to the number
of newspapers titles which may be interpreted as the indices of societal differentiation –
the bigger figure indicates on homogenous society. In the case of Estonia the index of
societal differentiation is now 11.900 (Estonian population 1 300 000 was divided on the
number of newspapers titles 109) contra to the Soviet time´s 28. 600 or in 1995 index was
6 600.
The second, remarkable phenomena is the stabilization of the number of newspapers
titles after re-establishing of independence. It seems to be manifestation of media market
self-regulation. It is interesting to know, are there same regularities in the post-communist
media market (Latvia, Russia, Poland)?
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1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
Figure 1. Demonstrative curve of the explosion of number of newspaper titles and
the beginning of stabilization after 1997.
Behind formal figures dramatic changes have happen in media market. For instance, my
favorite new newspaper “Hommikuleht” (Morning newspaper, founded in 1994) was sold
in 1997; Rahva Hääl (People´s Voice) was taken over by force and joined with
Päevaleht against will of newspaper staff; these journalists created new newspaper
“Sõnumileht”, and other turbulences. There were very mixed causes of these changes,
from ownership to political interests, unfortunately as I know nobody hasn´t analysed of
these changes in Estonian newspaper market.
Now we have main three daily newspapers Postimees, Eesti Päevaleht and SL-Õhtuleht.
SL-Õhtuleht was formed by joining of two newspapers Õhtuleht (Evening newspaper)
and Sõnumileht (Messages newspaper) SL-Õhtuleht has highest circulation rate (ca 68
000).
If number of newspapers titles is greatly increased, then number of printed copies per 1
000 persons is dramatically dropped, however there is no official statistics about total
number of printed copies (see Baltic States and Nordic Countries. Riga, 2000 and The
Estonian Statistical Yearbook, 2001). In 1985 this figure in Estonia was 447 copies per 1
000 persons; now in Latvia 146, in Lithuania 105, in Finland 455, Norway 590; it may be
that expected figure is not more than 200 copies per 1 000. Of course here is also problem
of accounting, because there are at least two free sheets (Linnaleht (Citypaper and
Kes.Kus.Mis (Who.Where. What) with high circulation in Tallinn. The main cause of
decrease is high price of newspapers. People can´t afford to buy newspapers, many elderly
people use libraries. The worse time was in the middle of 90s, when circulation rates were
lower than now.
2.1 Recent academic studies on newspapers
Academic studies on newspapers have relatively long tradition in Estonia, and what is
even more important – these studies had impact on real publishing policy during Soviet
time. Newspaper studies were iniatiated by sociology laboratory in Tartu University
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already 1965, during Hruschtov melting period. Leader of this group was Ülo Vooglaid,
now very respected person in Estonia, former PM, and also by Marju Lauristin (former
minister of social affairs), and Peeter Vihalemm. All they were very active persons in the
process of independence gaining, now all professors. The goal of study was figure out
reception and attitudes of audience of concrete Tartu based local newspaper “Edasi”
(under this title appeared old “Postimees” during Soviet regime). This academic study
changed imago and content (more people needs orientated) of newspaper, and circulation
increased, and Edasi became very respected newspaper in Estonia. So, even under the
Soviet regime was small possibility to conduct media studies, however finally in the
middle of 70s sociology laboratory was closed. The reason was KGB request.
It is important to emphasize that it wasn´t just a single attempt to conduct study to change
society. For instance, Estonian Radio has conducted more than 60 audience surveys from
1975 to 1994. Estonian Radio sociology group used the best statistical programmes of this
time made by prof. Ü.Võhandu.
Now the centre of media research is department of media of Tartu University. Between
1994 and 2001 MA degree have obtained 14 students. Unfortunately, titles of dissertations
do not tell about studies on audience, and readers attitudes. Esta Härm (1998) has studied
changes of readers letters to newspaper Edasi-Postimees from 1986 - 1996 ; Kaido Einmaa
(2000) studied code differences between printed and internet version of newspaper.
Only MA dissertation (in psychology) where gender was explicitly studied has been done
by Barbi Pilvre (1999); supevisor was Voldemar Kolga. Topic was to study construction
of gender in persona column stories in weekly Eesti Ekspress (1994 – 1999). She is
working as journalist in this highly evaluated weekly. It was found that women were not
only underrepresented, but their feminity was emphasized in these feature stories whereas
men were presented in cover stories just human beings, without gender indication.
In Tartu university Epp Lauk (1997) obtained PhD on “Historical and Sociological
Perspectives of Estonian Journalism”; Triin Vihalemm (1999) on “Formation of
Collective Identity among Russophone population of Estonia”, and Halliki Harro (2001, in
Oslo university) on “Changing Journalistic Conventions in the Press. Empirical studies on
daily newspapers under different political conditions in 20th century Estonia”. However,
gender was not directly presented in these PhD dissertations.
3. THE SELECTION OF THREE NEWSPAPERS
Three (national) newspapers have been selected as follows: 1 largest circulation
‘serious’/’quality’/’broadsheets’; 2 largest circulation serious newspaper, and 3d was
largest circulation ‘popular’/’yellow’/’tabloid
The fisrt was Postimees as the quality newspaper. Its day circulation in 2000 was 64
000. Owner is now Norwegian origin Schibsped ASA. Postimees was founded in 1886,
and able to save its identity over hundred years. During Soviet time this newspaper was
published under title Edasi (Forward”, however people know the “real” name of
newspaper. . The paper has daily the following sections: national news, foreign affairs,
economy, opinion, culture, sports. Additionally, some days, Postimees focuses on
special themes; cars, tourism, education, and Saturday weekly supplementary Arter is
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more culturally, life, problem oriented. Postimees website is http://www.postimees.ee ,
site visiting is yet free of charge. There is possibility in Internet to comment almost all
articles. So, my article published some month ago received comment so early as 5 AM
from USA reader!
Eesti Päevaleht (http://epl.ee ) is the second biggest “quality” newspaper, competing with
Postimees for the first place in media market, however now is clear that this newspaper
should satisfy with second place. Owner is Estonian Ekspress Group, now 100% (H.H.
Luik bought all shares a some day ago from Swedes). The circulation is ca 42 000 copies.
SL-Õhtuleht (http://www.sl-ohtuleht.ee) is the biggest newspaper in Estonia. It is
available across the country. Circulation is ca 68 000, a little bit more than circulation of
Postimees, really both newspapers are equal. Title is unusual – it refers on two
newspapers which were unified a couple of years ago. Õhtuleht was typical evening
newspaper; SL –Sõnumileht was newspaper created by journalists themselves, however it
can´t survive in market struggle. SL-Õhtuleht took empty nische in media market what
was free after disappearing the first tabloid Post.
We used the following guidelines in the process of choosing articles:
- include articles which explicitly and implicitly discuss masculinity or masculinities.
- and those articles whose focus is centrally on the activities of a man or men, even if they
do not explicitly make links between the subject and masculinity.
We excluded material where a man or men are mentioned but the focus is not centrally on
them, for instance sport and business.
4. QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF COVERAGE
This Workpackage 4 focuses on the review of two weeks’ Estonian press output to
examine explicit and implicit analyses on men and masculinities, and their
problematisation. Postimees, Eesti Päevaleht and SL-Õhtuleht were gathered for the whole
of May, but the analysis is based on the first two whole weeks of the period, i.e. from May
7 to May 20. This material consisted of 40 newspaper issues with supplements, altogether
2540 pages.
The following calculations were made (see Excel tables):
a)
Average total number of pages per day of each paper, including supplements,
during the 2 week period;
b)
Average total square centimetres per day of the whole paper, including
supplements, during the 2 weeks;
c)
Average number of pages per day of each paper, including supplements, devoted
to advertising during the 2 weeks;
d)
Average total square centimetres per day of the whole paper, including
supplements, devoted to advertising during the 2 weeks;
e)
For each paper for each day number of articles addressing men in relation to the 4
themes: Home and Work, Social Exclusion, Violences, Health; in addition an ‘Other’
category for articles on men that do not fit the 4 main themes;
f)
For each paper for each day total square centimetres (including title of the article
and any pictures attached to the article) of articles addressing men in relation to the 4
themes: Home and Work, Social Exclusion, Violences, Health; in addition an Other
category for article on men that do not fit the 4 main themes.
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In comparing the three newspapers with each other, three things have to be taken into
consideration. The first, Estonian newspapers are very similar: same quantity pages,
average between 29 and 32, minimum 24 maximum 52. Secondly, the space devoted to
advertising is exactly same in three newspapers – ca 42 %. And finally, no differences
between newspapers in amount of articles on men issues. Newspapers published 12 – 13
articles during these period.
Table 2
Amount of articles on men and masculinities.
Newspaper
Postimees
Eesti
Päevaleht
SL-Õhtuleht
total
Work &
home
3
2
Social
exclusion
2
2
Violence
Health
total
3
5
4
3
12
12
2
7 19%
4
8 22%
7
15 40%
0
7
13
37
19%
100%
As we see amount of articles on violence was the highest, 40% from all articles, however
these articles were shorter than articles on work and home
Tabel 3
Space devoted in cm/2 on men issues and masculinities
Newspaper
Work &
home
Social
Violence
exclusion
Health
total
% from all
articles
Postimees
Eesti
Päevaleht
SL-Õhtuleht
Total
2 700
1 900
1000
200
1 000
1 900
2 600
800
7 300
4 800
0.025
0.018
1000
5 600
30%
2100
3 300
18%
3 000
5 900
33%
0
3 400
19%
6 100
18 200
100%
0.021
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Figure 2
Space devoted on men issues in different newspapers.
3000
2500
2000
Postimees
EPL
SL-Õhtu
1500
1000
500
0
h &w
soc.exl
violence
health
It seems that Estonian tabloid SL-Õhtuleht devotes relatively more space on violence and
social exclusion to compare with other newspapers, and Postimees more space on homework topics. However, do not forget that devoted space on men issues in extremely low,
only ca 0.02% from all articles in newspaper, space on advertisement was excluded.
To improve “bad” picture it is needed to mention that in Internet portals as Delfi and
Mega have been very lively and active discussions on gender equality, roles of men and
women in society. Some discussions have attracted hundred comments. It means that
Estonian society isn`t indifferent to gender equality issues, especially younger and active
part of society. However, unfortunately it is quite common that articles written by feminist
as Iivi Masso (she stays now in Finland), Barbi Pilvre, Katrin Kivimaa (now in England),
and others would receive usually very aggressive macho responses and even personal
attacks. There is no censorship in portals discussion groups. However, Internet can
compensate passivity of newspapers, so it raised very active discussion on new gender
equality law what was passed to the Parlament to compare with printed media.
5. QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF COVERAGE
In May 2001 the most presented and discussed were Estonian victory in Eurovision
contest and president election rally, and as it was expected in both were men involved.
To develop other viewpoint Ene Paaver in EPL wrote funny article under title “Mister –
the first lady”; it was about Estonians possible reactions to` Women president husband`.
However, it is imaginary situation and newspapers devoted much space to president health
examination, and to their family and possible love affairs.
Relatively big space was given to several rape stories in the beginning of May. Aliments
stories are also visible, for instance, such case that aliment debtor was announced winner
of “Healthy and strong family” contest.
A big story happened in bike bar where racist announcement was found: no dirty men in
bar. By the way very violent advertisement has Statoil (very serious bikers in black skin).
Social exclusion problems are presented under title “Homos compile lists with enemy
names” or articles about homeless men.
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Typical articles about men have such titles as “Men satisfy love of adventure by travelling
and forget about career” or “Top-businessmen earned millions in last year”. Gender has
been implicitly presented here, however as exclusion gender may be focused directly in
rare cases.
Postimees ,May 17, 2001 devoted whole page to survey conducted by Estonian statistical
office on education and labour market in gender context. The second page (very good
place in newspaper) was under general title: “Women are more successful at school, men
in labour market”. It was found that in universities there are 2 500 women more than men ,
total figure was 25 200. The only specialites where still are more men are following:
mathematics, PC, technique, and agriculture. Page is illustrated by chemistry auditorium
in Tartu University big picture where we can´t see men. It is clear sign: men are loosing
own position, even in chemistry. It was revealed that in all education levels men have
more troubles, especially boys from rural districts. In university differences even became
larger: men drop out more easily than women, and only small percent men are able to
graduate from university right time. Reason is that “labour market needs men hands” as
subtitle stated. There are also comments from PM and social scientist. Ministry of social
affairs agreed that there are unequal opportunites in labor market, however it is not caused
by discrimination, rather result of tradition. The main tone is that unequality of salaries is
result “normal” labour division, men work where they are better, and women where they
are better. The main idea is that women success at schools and men success in labour
market is rather natural law: nothing to do with nature. And Scandinavian quota system
is not ideal for Estonia, because we know Soviet gender equality.
This presentation of gender issues is very typical nowadays in Estonia. There are some
problems in gender equality like Estonians (journalists) to say, especially from western
point of view, however take it easy! This fallible position was discussed and criticized by
Rein Taagepera (emeritprofessor of Tartu University and California University) in article
“Women, men and technology” in Postimees, May 28, 2001.He explained what means
tradition pitfall, and why men to better in labour market . Unfortunately this article is
rather exclusion than typical presentation of gender issues.
Conclusion.
Estonian printed media does not devote much of attention to men´s and masculinities
issues. Men`s work-home, social exclusion, violence and health problem are presented
mostly gender neutral way. If gender is explicitly presented, then traditional views are
mostly supported.
Supplements: Excel tables of newspapers Postimees, Eesti Päevaleht and SL-Õhtuleht.
Bibliography.
1. Baltic and Nordic countries. Riga. 2000.
2. Estonian Encyclopaedia . Tallinn: 1998
3. Estonian Statistic Yearbook. 2001. Tallinn: 2001.
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