National FSA Training
Module 8
Module 8: PRA field work, analysis and reporting
PRA field work, analysis and reporting
Objectives
This module enables participants to:
 Work in an interdisciplinary team
 Plan fieldwork with a FSA perspective
 Learn to use PRA methods to collect relevant data for future activities
 Learn how to manage and analyse qualitative data from a PRA survey
 Understand how to write and present a PRA fieldwork report
Content
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
Introduction
Preparing the fieldwork
8.2.1 Introduction
8.2.2 The survey team
8.2.3 Literature search and review
8.2.4 Identify objectives, develop checklist and select data collection methods
8.2.5 Organisational issues
PRA implementation
8.3.1 Arrival and introduction
8.3.2 Implementing the PRA
8.3.3 Assembling information and debriefing
8.3.4 Data analysis
After the PRA
8.4.1 Creating reports from fieldnotes
8.4.2 Presenting the result
8.4.3 Conclusion
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8.1
Module 8: PRA field work, analysis and reporting
Introduction
Essentially this is the practical component of the FSA training workshop. It entails bringing together
zonal teams to plan and implement a survey that uses some or all Farming Systems Approaches
learned during the workshop in collecting data that could be used to plan farmer accepted
technological options. The field work component gives workshop participants an exposure on how to
undertake studies that would ultimately help them to obtain information that will enable them to
understand the farming systems dynamics, linkages and opportunities.
The FSA training course has two main components: the diagnostic phase and the experimentation
phase. The diagnostic phase is a stage where course participants are trained on how to explore
problems that require attention by the combined efforts of farmers, researchers, extension agents and
other stakeholders in agricultural development. This is an important stage because if problems are not
properly identified, there is a greater likelihood that wrong solutions will be suggested and tested. It is
therefore at this stage stakeholders identify production constraints and prioritise solutions.
Apart from the theoretical introductions and practical PRA fieldwork during the training, participants
are also given an opportunity to plan and conduct fieldwork in their respective zones. Participants
from each zone will form interdisciplinary teams, which if necessary, can incorporate senior zonal
researchers with field experience on PRAs. The fieldwork is conducted between the two phases. This
provides an opportunity for practical use of the FSA knowledge acquired during the first leg of the
course. The team will submit a report to the training organisers.
At the beginning of the second phase, which essentially includes planning, experimentation and
dissemination stages the respective zonal participants will present their zonal PRA exercise reports.
The reports will be discussed in plenary sessions that will give the participants an opportunity to learn
how to design experimental options for solving problems that they encountered in the field.
8.2
Preparing the fieldwork
8.2.1
Introduction
In the second week of the training participants will undertake a Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)
field work which will enable them to acquire an understanding of some of the PRA skills and tools
and how to apply them at field level. The fieldwork component aims to expose participants to
undertake diagnostic studies that help to obtain information that will enable them to understand the
farming systems dynamics, linkages and opportunities. Fieldwork will strengthen the overall impact
of the training through learning by doing. During the PRA fieldwork participants will use different
tools to collect data and also plan farmer accepted technological options. The villages for the PRA
fieldwork are selected by the training facilitators together with the district extension staff. District
extension officers will provide participants with background information of the selected villages.
8.2.2
The survey team
A PRA survey team must be balanced in terms of professional experience ( disciplinary backgrounds:
crop science, animal husbandry, agricultural economics, social science etc), gender, language,
hierarchy, experience with participatory methods, knowledge of the area, personality, etc.
Clarification on expectations, fears, threats and strengths of each team member should be established
right from the beginning. For the fieldwork in the training course the facilitators will form four (4)
interdisciplinary teams. Each team will choose its own team leader and a notes taker. The team leader
must monitor implementation throughout the survey so as to refine it as the need arises. One or two
facilitators will be assigned to each sub-group to provide technical backstopping. The teams or main
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Module 8: PRA field work, analysis and reporting
subgroups can subdivide themselves again depending on assigned roles/responsibilities. Each team
member is then assigned a specific task to perform depending on his/her background. Using welldeveloped study objectives, the team should develop some few research questions to start off general
discussions before concentrating on the checklist.
8.2.3
Literature search and review
It is very rare to find a research topic, which has not been investigated yet. In one way or another
there will be other people who have already done some work on the topic or area. Within this context,
the team must first collect information on the socio-economic, cultural, political, administrative and
natural conditions of the proposed study area in order to lay the foundation or baseline for the
fieldwork. Literature enables the team to understand things that have been researched and those,
which have not. Literature also helps to refine methodologies. Literature search and review of
preliminary information further enables the team to refresh theoretical and methodological knowledge
that is required (e.g. farming systems) for planning the study.
To achieve this, the interdisciplinary team should review as much literature as possible. Tasks for
literature review should be divided, not everybody has to read each document. The team should also
collect and structure information on individuals, groups and organisations (stakeholder assessment)
working in the study area with a focus on: objectives, activities, mandate areas, target groups,
resources (see module 3). For the fieldwork that will be done during the training course the facilitators
will ensure that the relevant information is available.
8.2.4
Identify objectives, develop checklist and select data collection methods
The team will start by describing the problems that justify the study. This is followed by the
identification of detailed objectives of the study in terms of purpose, expected outputs, target or user
groups (refer to Module 4), and target area using secondary information sources.
The team then identifies research questions, which specify as precisely as possible which
information is needed to achieve sub-outputs of the study. Research questions must be formulated in
such a way that they address the system in a holistic way. Based on the overall research question that
needs to be answered in the fieldwork, the team develops a checklist. This checklist will guide the
various interview sessions. The team can elaborate a preliminary table of contents for the study, in
order to cross-check the consistency in the checklist. Module 7 gave general guidelines on how to
develop a checklist. Remember that the checklist is not a list of questions but guides the team on
starting points for discussions on various topics. It just makes sure that none of the salient points are
missed. The checklist is the result of brainstorming by the team.
The team then selects data collection methods and data analysis tools from the participatory tools
provided in Module 7. Table 7. in Module 7 gives an overview of the various tools and their purpose.
Tools have to be selected in such a manner that information can be triangulated through the methods
that are used. Participatory methods also derive a great deal from the way in which processes and
outputs of one PRA method can lead into another. Decide before you go to the village which methods
you are going to use in which order.
Next the team decides on:
 Sampling frame (from which groups will you select respondents), and sampling size. Who
will provide what information (men, women, children, youth, elderly, rich, poor, key
informants, etc.) in which exercise.
 Tentative report outline (Table of contents).
 The time frame for the research project: Decide upon the most appropriate time to undertake
survey activities. Avoid preconceived judgements that the dry season is the best time. You
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Module 8: PRA field work, analysis and reporting
will be surprised that some groups may be extremely busy during that time of the year. For
example, in some communities the dry season is the most appropriate time for women to go
and collect fuelwood so that during the wet season they concentrate on other things. Try to
plan for triangulation through time by coming back to the community. Next decide on the
general time frame: when should preparations start, how much time will you need, when will
you debrief to the community, when will you finalise your report and present the findings.
8.2.5
Organisational issues
While organising the survey the various responsibilities are identified and allocated to team members.
Logistics for activities are prepared. Activities to be decided include:
 Divide tasks for writing the different chapters (sections) of the report.
 Divide tasks who will collect what data (make small sub-teams), who will process respective
information and how will data be analysed.
 Draw a bar chart or matrix that shows all team activities, intermediate results expected from
activities, their timing and results and responsibility for activities and results.
 A team contract, a code of conduct for team members, as a way of managing deviants.
 Prepare any materials you may require: flipcharts, marker pens, note books, calculator,
sample forms of empty diagrams you would like to use.
8.3
PRA implementation
8.3.1
Arrival and introduction
Upon arrival in the study area the team should go through the normal administrative channels from
the district to the village level to introduce the team and the activity. The team should explain the use
of the activity and the various interest groups in the study area. If the exercise remains a training
exercise only without follow-up activities this should be explained to villagers from the beginning. If
not, expectations may be raised which will be dashed as villagers realise that their intense
involvement in the fieldwork has been for nothing. In some cases those that agree to the activity are
not the ones who invest their time without clear benefit. It may be possible to avoid this danger by
working only in communities in which follow-up is guaranteed.
When researchers or outsiders meet with farmers it is always advisable to introduce themselves and
clarify purpose and expectations of the PRA. Clarification involves both sides (researchers and
farmers) explaining what they expect from the other. The team should also check what farmer
expectations of the exercise are, without necessarily raising hopes. Experience has shown that
although researchers feel they have stated their purpose and what is expected from farmers, there are
still misunderstandings lingering. It’s therefore recommended to repeat this several times throughout
the exercise. This builds up an understanding and serve to create an easy working atmosphere.
Researchers should also be sensitive and compromise to cultural requirements to avoid offending the
farmers.
Seek for collaborators where necessary, e.g. extension agents or NGO workers who work on similar
issues as you do. When the team arrives in the village respect the way people live and how they are
organised. Researchers should as much as possible strive to reduce the cultural gap between them and
farmers.
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8.3.2
Module 8: PRA field work, analysis and reporting
Implementing the PRA
The major output here is that the team implements the plan. It is refined to accommodate new
information and changing conditions. The following hints will help you successfully implement your
plan:
 When using the PRA methods in the short fieldwork during phase 1, make sure you start
immediately with a diagramming-based method. If you do not start with it straight away it
will be very difficult to leave the regular interviewing with notebook and pen alone.
 Begin with a concrete activity that requires group input and will almost certainly to lead to a
concrete output. A mapping exercise is a good starter.
 Use direct observations and ask about what you see.
 Try to get opinions from all groups, especially women, the poorer, the more remote, those
who do not use services, who are liable to be left out.
 For every exercise decide who is the reporter/observer. This person not only notes the
discussion but also the process that is taking place. The reporter/observer monitors input from
team members and can thereby correct an exercise if he/she sees it does not work as planned.
This specific role is very important in interdisciplinary work while trying to use new research
methods.
 All responses from interviewees must be recorded as they are given. This has to avoid
researchers’ own judgements dominating the report to be produced.
 Do not collect data that you will not use later on.
 Do not lecture or dominate.
 Do not interrupt or interfere. Once a task has been initiated let people get on with it.
 In discussion give people time to think or discuss among themselves.
 Embrace error. We all make mistakes. Do not hide it but share it.
 Relax, do not rush. Practice is the best way to learn and you do not need to learn everything in
the first 30 minutes.
 Be around in the evening, at night and in the early morning. Stay the night in villages if you
can.
 Allow unplanned time, walk and wander around
 Probe and use the six helpers – who, what, where, when, why, and how
 Show interest and enthusiasm in learning from people
 Have second and third meetings and interviews with the same people and discuss your
findings.
 Allow time for team interaction and for changing the agenda
 Revise the checklist at the end of each day.
8.3.2
Assembling information and debriefing
At the end of the day the team discusses various incidents that happened during the day. The team
reviews questions that were used, exercises that were done, and cross-checks the information that
each team member collected. Most importantly the team discusses the general research process in the
village and the interdisciplinary teamwork. How is it going? Do any of the exercises for the next day
need to be changed? Is important information missing?
The use of participatory methods can lead to the collection of excess information, which does not feed
into an action plan or does not focus on the main critical issues. On many occasions participants were
carried away with the use of the methods, while neglecting the importance of analysis. To lead to
change, analysis of information is crucial but many people find it difficult. In a PRA the emphasis
should be on building the discussion process and conflict resolution. The survey team should
understand that participatory fieldwork is not a fact finding mission, but is about facilitating learning
and analysis by local people, or stimulating community awareness. It is a process that empowers
communities to address and own their development activities. There is however a real risk of simply
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Module 8: PRA field work, analysis and reporting
focusing on analysing data, rather than reflecting on the process that developed during discussions
with informants.
Analysing a PRA or any other informal survey may be tasking because of the large amount of oftendisorganised data. In a properly implemented PRA survey data processing and analysis is done in the
field by the PRA team in collaboration with the farmers.
8.3.3
Data analysis
One aim of the survey here is to define relatively homogeneous types of farmers and agro-ecological
or production zones in which proposed interventions can be planned. Such details are obtained when
analysing PRA data after the survey. During and after analysis, one can delineate farmer typologies
based on the criteria established. Within this context, data analysis is important and you have to think
how data will be used. In fact interested parties are numerous and what you think is irrelevant at the
moment may be of utmost importance to others or even to yourself in future. For instance, in the past
socio-economic data were perceived irrelevant by agricultural researchers. Such data were not
collected and where collected they were either not analysed or rejected completely. Today the same
data are wanted and used. Within this context, the key objectives of data analysis and presentations
are (Meena et al., 2001):
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To summarise data collected in such a way that it is easy to understand the farming systems,
farming communities, constraints and opportunities.
To be able to derive meaningful conclusions or inferences from data.
To present the data in a way that can be communicated to different stakeholders, regardless of
their social groups
After analysing and interpreting, the researcher will be in a position to identify implications
for research, extension and policy. This is the stage where the way forward is determined.
8.4
After the PRA
8.4.1
Creating reports from fieldnotes
At the end of the fieldwork, each PRA team must produce a report based on the analysis that was
done by all stakeholders. This is one of the major outputs of the survey. Although farmers may not
participate in actual report writing, they can participate in data analysis. In PRA surveys this can be
done in the field. Analysing your data at the research station (by the researchers) takes away from
farmers the opportunity to participate in technology development.
While presenting your data take account of the following:
 Data can be presented in tabular forms (e.g. Matrices). Make these tables simple.
 Use descriptive statistics if needed (average, means, maximum).
 Rank problems and use graphics as much as you can.
 Try to use charts, photographs, histograms, box charts, graphs, calendars and figures, etc.
 Share analysis and presentations between farmers and researchers.
While writing your report remember that “Simplicity is the mark of excellent writing. This is true, no
matter how complex the ideas being expressed are.” (Conway, 1985). The following considerations
must be taken into account when writing a report:
 Assess who will make use of your report. In other words, the report needs to be written to
meet the needs of the audience.
 Produce a user-friendly report, written in universal format and style.
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Module 8: PRA field work, analysis and reporting
Chapters written by different team members need to be discussed on a regular basis before the
final report is released. Make sure the report writing style reflects interdisciplinarity. Very
often reports are written in such a way that one can tell which disciplines participated
Use common language that is spoken by the stakeholders, e.g. in the case of rural Tanzania
you may need to produce one copy in English (for scientists) and another copy in Kiswahili
for farmers and some policy makers.
Limiting yourself to the facts which are requested in each chapter.
Write down what is relevant in the specific context of the community where the village PRA
was conducted
Avoid generalisation; e.g. “there is a high birth rate in xxx village”. If the statement was not
explicitly mentioned in the village PRA do not use it.
Write short and precise sentences. Avoid sentences with more than 2.5 lines.
Avoid unnecessary “fillers” such as “obviously” or “naturally”
Remember that the report will be read by people who did not take part in the village PRA and
may not even know PRA. Express the main points without writing the whole story starting
with Adam and Eve!
Make sure that your language and ideas are logical, consistent and clearly expressed.
State your main points and ideas before going into detail (if such details is needed at all!)
Include as many of the drawings done during the village PRA as possible. Refer to them and
explain them in the text. It does not make sense to put them in without any explanation at all.
The logical relationship between the chapters has to be clear. Avoid repetitions. Nothing is
more boring than reading the same thing over and over again! Use devices like “see chapter
xx for further explanation”.
Find a neutral person to proof read it for you.
Organise report presentation workshops for different stakeholders in order to get the feedback
that is required to improve the report.
Steps of report writing:
 Prepare an outline
 Organise and arrange the information according to the outline
 Draft the report
 Review and revise the narrative with the team and key informants
 Finalise the report
 Copy the report
 Distribute the report
 Implement the recommendations
Any scientific report can have as many chapters as the authors wish, but it should include at least the
following:
 Title
 Acknowledgements
 Table of contents
 Introduction: To describe the topic, what study was conducted, who conducted it, who
financed it, who requested it, and how will the results be used.
 Statement of the problem
 Objectives/Hypothesis/Research questions: Essentially describes or reflects on what is to be
achieved
 Methodology: How was the survey done. This section must link to the objectives. Shows the
data collection tools and why these were selected.
 Description of the study area: Include the ecological and socio-economic characteristics
 Findings or Results and Discussions: This section may be written in different forms. Some
scholars start with a description of results, followed by a section on discussion of the results.
Others (most social scientists) present and discuss on the spot. None of these approaches is
better than the other as both end up doing the same thing. The results and discussion section
could be in form of text, tables, graphs, charts, photographs, drawings, etc.
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8.4.2
Module 8: PRA field work, analysis and reporting
Problem analysis, Constraints and Opportunities: Often presented in the form of problem
trees in order to make it more meaningful and understandable. Sometimes a research team
may come up with a problem without an immediate answer. If that happens it is better to pass
such questions to respective organs that have the mandate to handle them.
Conclusions, Recommendations, Implications for Research and Policy: The solutions to
identified constraints are usually presented as recommendations. They should be specific
and are usually targeted to different agencies who have mandate over them. They should
contain the statement of the problem, the justification (prioritisation), what is to be done and
the actor. Recommendations are normally discussed with relevant organisations to ensure that
they are realistic and can be implemented.
References: The list of references is usually attached towards the end in order to show
different sources of information that were used during the course of the study
Appendices: Any relevant information which due to any reason it was not possible to include
in the text, is presented as an appendix. This does not mean that such information is useless,
instead it is because of many scientific considerations including page limitations
Presenting the result
One may ask, why is it important to properly present survey results? The reasons may be numerous,
but the following are very important:
 This is one way of justifying expenditure for the money spent,
 To inform the public (including other researchers) on the current situation or direction of
research
 To make recommendations to different actors
 To inform the public on the scientific advancement in knowledge and prevent possibility of
work duplication.
The format and mode of presenting data depends on the purpose of collecting data and the type of
stakeholders who are to receive and use the information. Once data is properly organised, the next
step is its presentation. This could be in workshops, seminars or meetings. This presentation is
determined by a number of factors. Some of them are:
 The audience (nature and interests)
 The level of understanding of the audience/level of education
 What are their expectations?
 How will data be used/for what purpose is the data being organised?
The following considerations should be thought of in the presentation.
 Data can be presented in tabular forms (e.g. Matrices). Make these tables as simple as you
could
 Use simple statistics if needed, rank problems and use graphics as much as you could.
 Try as much as you could to use charts, photographs, histograms, box charts, graphs,
calendars and figures, etc.
 Shared analysis and presentations between farmers and researchers may be more interesting
than when only researchers present.
8.4.3
Conclusion
As a survey team you should give high priority to:
 A systematic approach (to avoid confusing respondents)
 Effective co-ordination
 Thorough editing of the collected information. Do not wait until you come back from the field
after your survey. You may not be able to follow up or get back uncollected or misreported
data.
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Module 8: PRA field work, analysis and reporting
Limit yourself to the essentials, keep your purpose in mind and discourage specialists who tend to get
side tracked in their fields of specialisation. Allocate enough time for data management, analysis, and
interpretation and report writing. This is much more time-consuming than data collection.
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