Climate and Industries
Climate plays a significant role in many aspects of commerce and industry
(technoclimatology was term coined by H. Landsberg), just as it does in health, clothing,
housing and hydrology. But unlike the latter fields, the effects of climate on many
industrial or engineering operations are not well recognized. –Mather
A. Climate plays a role in 5 important areas:
1. Operations and production (design, location, planning of operations)
2. Labor (especially biological influences)
3. Raw materials (storage, exposure, availability)
4. Transportation (route planning, scheduling, hazards)
5. Sales and distribution
1. Production. Looking at “climatic costs” in industrial production, management must
include effect of climate on such things as:
a. heating and cooling requirements
b. water supplies
c. air and water pollution control
d. warehousing, storage, and transport of raw or finished products (ie bananas)
e. weathering or deteriorating of stock items such as fuels
f. health, efficiency, morale of workers
g. all outside activities
B.Significant meteorological/climatic variables that impair industrial operations, ranked
generally in order of decreasing importance, as follows:
a. extreme temperatures, esp. low temps and including permafrost effects
b. snow, sleet and ice
c. high winds
d. heavy rainfall
e. other factors: high humidity, poor visibility, and other weather elements
a. Extreme T. Major limitation of low T results from decreased efficiency of labor.
Also operations-often affected by temps even above freezing. Painting usually
restricted by T < 16C (60F) and T < 4 C (40F) usually terminate all outside
painting operations;precision machining often difficult below 16 C, while up to a
¼ of parts used in airframes can’t be produced well below 4 C.
At 30 or 95 F, efficiency falls to about 75% of maximum. At -10 or 110 F, about
25% of max, and below -20 or above 120 F, practically all effort of individual
devoted to maintaining life.
Table 1: Outdoor Efficiency of Workers at Low Temperatures
Temps F
70 20 0 -23 -40 -50 -80
Efficiency, % 100 75 50 25
14
10
0
Below freezing, vehicles not prepared for such conditions may be frozen or hard
to start; many plastics become unworkable; machine parts become brittle.
Large T ranges during day may produce problems. Problem for precision
instruments.
Permafrost, or permanently frozen ground, resulting from constant low T, can
create significant engineering problems. Construction requires foundations result
in heat conduction into ground. Permafrost melted and thick, gooey substance
develops under structure, building or road. Should be prevented by insulating
pilings and footings so heat is not conducted into ground. Increases costs.
b. Snow, sleet, ice. Disruption can be minimized with experience and preparation.
Heavy snow and snow drift can shut down operations, cities, destroy buildings.
Snow removal requires adequate equipment, good forecast, preparations.
Ice and sleet can stop operations, workers. A fraction of an inch of ice can bring
most vehicle traffic to a stop. Icing on railroad tracks, power lines, poles can
disrupt both.
c. wind. Most buildings, operations can withstand all but most severe winds.
However secondary effects of wind, in blowing dust or snow, or making low T
more severe, can limit many industrial operations. Blowing objects may damage
billboards, signs, wires, poles and unsecured equipment. High elevation work may
be suspended. Tough on taggers too.
d. Heavy rainfall. Problem of flooding low lying or flat areas where drainage
inadequate. Outdoor work, ie roofing, disrupted by even light drizzle.
e. Other weather factors. High humidities can lead to deterioration, mildew, rotting
of certain stored products or raw materials or corrosion of metals; or affect
comfort of workers. Low visibility can stop outdoor operations in transportation,
construction and entertainment. Lightning adds danger to outdoor activities.
Intense radiation may damage stored items if not shielded.
C. For individual industries, climatic influences related to: location and operations.
Climatic factors affecting location.
a. transportation of raw materials, labor supply, land and housing costs,
manufacturing processes, and waste disposal.
b. Building design, orientation; water supply; air pollution aspects
Operations.
a. Temperature limits; optimum temperature
b. Comfort, efficiency of workers
c. Probability of adverse weather
d. Outdoor construction costs
e. Advertisement-seasonal products, ie anti-freeze, umbrellas
Example: Motion pictures industry. Why did southern CA become the movie mecca?
D. Energy Industries
Gas and oil companies
Domestic usage of gas, electricity is influenced mostly by temperature, but also
wind, cloudiness and precipitation.
Heating and Cooling Degree Days (see text p. 348)
Hydro electric power-related to precipitation and hydrological cycle; seasonality;
supply vs demand; power grids
Wind power-requires steady, strong winds. In practice, winds should be 20 mph over
40% of the time.
P (kilowatts) = 5 X 106 av3,
Where a=exposed surface area (ft2), v= wind speed (mph)
Solar power-% sunshine available
E. Transportation Industries
Aviation
2 headings-terminal and on route
Terminal:
1. Selection of airport site-obstacles, visibility, fog, city pollution, terrain. Find site
that minimizes weather hazards.
2. Layout of runways using prevailing winds (wind rose)
3. Most important parameters: visibility, ceiling height, winds
a. VFR-Visual flight rules (min. 1000’ ceiling, 3 miles visibility)
b. IFR-Instrumental flight rules (lower than minimum above)
On route:
1. Great circle is shortest, but may not be fastest route or most economic, or safest.
2. Turbulence. 4 principal factors lead to turbulence: (a) thermal, (b) frictional, (c)
frontal, and (d) that associated with extensive wind shear.
3. Icing. One of the greatest hazards to flight.
a. occurs when liquid water present in air and temperature of aircraft at or below
freezing, ie clouds with supercooled water droplets.
b. clear ice (when droplets strike wings and spread out and freeze) or rhime ice
(granular or crystalline ice) builds on leading edge of wings, removes aerodynamic
lift and adds weight to plane.
4. Storms: hurricanes, tornadoes, lightning, microbursts, downbursts, thunderstorms.
Water transport
Long history of ships encountering weather from sail boats to steam boats to subs.
Age of sails completely at mercy of winds. Sailing helped discover trade winds, horse
latitudes. Today steam and motor vessels still influenced by wind direction and force
for safety and economy of operations.
1.Favorable winds can increase speed, whereas head winds slow ships and increase
fuel consumption. Pressure of wind vs. ships is proportional to vel2.
Tail wind increases speed 1%, head wind -3 to -13% depending on load and size. A
longer route with more favorable winds can be quicker and more economic.
2. Design of harbors, bays, jetties, marinas, break water to protect ships.
3. Small pleasure crafts must be “weather-wise” in case of sudden storms, high
waves.
4. Next to wind, visibility next important. Fog in harbor or open seas increases danger
of collisions (buoys, icebergs, etc). Foghorns common where dense fog occurs.
5. Cold affects cargo (loading, unloading) and passengers. Ice shuts down harbors in
Arctic. Icebreakers employed at lower latitudes to keep navigable channels open.
6. Great Lakes. Ice builds out from shoreline, disrupts shipping. Ice thickest in
protected bay. Great storms in winter-Edmund Fitzpatrick.
Wind setup, h = CK W2L/2gD, h is wave height, D-depth, L-fetch, W-wind speed,
g-gravity, C-constant for bottom roughness, K-factor depending on shape of lake.
7. Iceberg monitoring since the Titanic
Railroads
Affected 2 ways: (a) weather that hinders safe and rapid movement, and (b) most
costly, caused by low temperatures.
1. Sever storms damage tracks, bridges, signals and communication lines.
2. Floods, heavy snow and landslides, avalanches very hazardous.
3. Passenger trains need comfort-heat, air conditioning; often going to vacation spots
or between large cities.
4. Freight. Goods must be protected (perishable fruits, veggies, livestock);
refrigerated cars; protected from precipitation, cold.
5. Problems: icing; contraction, expansion of tracks and switches with extreme heat,
cold.
6. Trains can go through storms that planes, cars cannot, but not immune from
weather.
Road transport
1. Major consideration is safety. Poor visibility, slippery road, gusty winds, driving
rains, snow increase hazards of driving as shown by accident stats.
2. Hazardous weather calls for caution, less traffic, while favorable weather increases
traffic.
3. Road maintenance-snow, floods, pot holes, icing; water removal techniques
(grooves);
4. Snow-snow tires, snow plows, road salt; snow fences or wind breaks; chains,
shovels, brooms, scrapers.
5. The auto-subjected to many weather conditions which determine design and
construction.
a. wind. Body design, steering geometry, windshield
b. precipitation. Windshield wipers, defrost, convertible
c. sunshine. Tinted glass, visors
d. temperature. Heater, air conditioner, vents; block heater; frost guard
Pedestrian
1. Important factors; precipitation, sunshine, sidewalk glare, icing. Awnings over
sidewalks; skywalks (Minneapolis)
2. Urban design to make city more pedestrian friendly; parks and open spaces,
building spacing and orientation to winds, sunshine; close streets to pedestrians,
bikes.
Climate & insurance. All-risk crop insurance; cost-benefit approach
Forensic climatology/meteorology. Blame the weather.
Weather consultants
Retail industries-sales, merchandizing, advertisement
Military operations
1. History. Several battles influenced by weather (Napolean’s defeat in Russia; and
Waterloo-rain, Spanish Armada-storms, Invasion of Normandy-low clouds, fog;
invasion of Japan-typhoon,….)
2. Aircraft operations-cloud cover hides aircraft or target, paratroopers; fog poor for
air attack, good for commandos. Chemical warefare considers winds.
3. Amphibious assault-storm waves; soil conditions
4. Clothing and equipment. Must be able to sustain extremes of that climatic zone.
Military clothing usually very well suited, since not connected to fashion.
Sporting events
1. Seasons, schedules planned for weather considerations.
2. Facilities (indoor/outdoor); consideration of winds, sunshine, lighting, precipitation
3. Training-Olympics, boxing, baseball (Arizona vs Florida)
4. Baseball physics
Try: http://profhorn.meteor.wisc.edu/wxwise/baseball/homerun.html