Etruscan and Ancient Roman Art 1
I.
ETRUSCAN AND
ANCIENT ROMAN ART
IN THE BEGINNING THERE WERE THE ETRUSCANS
A.
Basic Facts about the Etruscans
1.
Lived in central Italy
2.
Civilization flourished from 1000 BCE to about 200
BCE
3.
The Etruscan language resembles none other that is presently known and its origins are uncertain. Only a few Etruscan words, most of them names and inscriptions, have been deciphered.
4.
Similar gods to the Greeks and Romans (Chart on G-
235)
5.
Our major source of information about the Etruscans comes from their tombs which the Romans left undisturbed and which are in many cases buried under modern Italian towns.
B.
Samples of Etruscan art and architecture
1.
Etruscan temples

No temples presently exist. All we know of them is from descriptions by the ancient Roman architect
Vitruvius

Resemblance to Greek temples (gabled roof) but key differences

Tuscan columns made out of wood (similar to Doric but without flutes and having bases.

Superstructure (roof and entablature) made out of wood

A high podium with steps only from one side – a main entrance (Greek temples had steps on all sides)

Columns only on the front side – spaced more widely apart because of lightness of superstructure

Walls of temple made from sundried brick

No statues in pediment – statues made out of terracotta place along the roof
2.
Apulu of Veii (G – 236)

Etruscan version of Apollo

Would have been placed on the roof of an Etruscan temple

Notice similarities to Archaic Greek art

Key differences

Etruscan and Ancient Roman Art 2

Clothed – wears stylized drapery

Made out of terracotta
3.
Sarcophagus of reclining couple from Cerveteri (G –
237)

Etruscans cremated their dead

Figures represent a married couple

Wife and husband are given a similar status reflecting the relatively high status of women in
Etruscan society

Made out of terracotta
4.
Chimera

A triple-bodied monster, “lion before, serpent behind, she-goat in the middle.”

Made out of bronze

Sculpture was found in 1533
5.
Capitoline wolf

Bronze portrayal of the she-wolf that, according to
Roman legend, nursed Romulus and Remus, the legendary founders of Rome

Romulus and Remus were added during the
Renaissance
6.
Sarcophagus of Lars Pulena

Produced in Hellenistic Etruria

A realistic human depiction but generic – not a real portrait of deceased

Gloomy outlook of the afterlife in the lower part – the deceased is depicted being tormented by charuns
– death demons

The deceased holds a scroll with his accomplishments in life
7.
Aule Metele a.k.a. Arringatore (Orator)

Aule Metele and names of his parents are written on the hem of his garment

Wears the short toga and high laced boots of a
Roman magistrate

Nicknamed the Orator because of his positioning

Resembles Roman sculpture of the period

Made out of bronze – Etruscan artists were still expert bronze casters

Discovered during Renaissance

Etruscan and Ancient Roman Art 3
II.
ANCIENT ROMAN ART - Introduction
A.
When you think of Rome and the Roman Empire, what comes to mind?
B.
A Brief History
1.
753 BC – Romulus (the legendary founder of Rome) builds the first wall around the Palatine Hill
2.
509 BC – Rome set up a Republic, a government in which citizens have the right to vote to choose their leaders
3.
451 BC – A group of ten officials wrote down Rome’s laws. These laws were carved on 12 great tablets or tables and hung in the Forum.
4.
390 BC – Rome’s walls were successfully stormed by marauding Gauls. The Gauls sacked Rome, leaving it in ruins. But, Rome quickly recovered. The city would not be sacked again for 800 years.
5.
275 BC – Rome defeats a Greek army led by Pyrrhus.
Pyrrhus won every battle but lost the war. Ever since, a victory gained at too high a price has been known as a
“Pyrrhic victory.” After 275 BC, the Romans were masters of all Italy.
6.
264 – 146 BC – Rome defeats Carthage in a series of
Punic Wars. As a result of these wars, Rome becomes the master of the western Mediterranean Sea.
7.
146 BC – Rome makes Greece a Roman province
8.
133 BC – Rome inherits Pergamon
9.
59 – 49 BC – Julius Caesar conquers Gaul
10.
44 BC – Julius Caesar is assassinated
11.
31 BC – Octavian, Caesar’s adopted son, defeats
Cleopatra and Mark Antony.
12.
27 BC – 14 AD – Octavian rules Roman Empire

Etruscan and Ancient Roman Art 4
13.
27 BC – 180 AD Pax Romana
C.
Let’s take a look at three maps
1.
Geographic setting
Note that Rome was located 15 miles from the
Mediterranean Sea. Far enough to provide warning of sea raiders, but near enough to give it ready access to the sea.
2.
The Empire
3.
The City
III.
THE WONDERS OF ROME
A.
Overview of the city
1.
Large population
2.
“Caput Mundi”
B.
Forum Romana
1.
A FORUM was the civic center of an ancient Roman city, containing temples, a marketplace, and government buildings.
2.
As Rome was the center of the Empire, so the Forum
Romana was the center of Rome
3.
The row of columns contains statues honoring the gods.
The city of Rome had over 10,000 statues.
4.
The Golden Milestone – Have you ever heard the saying
“All roads lead to Rome?” It was literally true. Caesar
Augustus made the building of highways a major project and they all led to the Golden Milestone.
C.
Meeting the Roman people
1.
BUST – a portrait showing the head and neck detached from the rest of the body.
2.
It was traditional for Roman families to preserve wax or marble portraits of their ancestors.

Etruscan and Ancient Roman Art 5
3.
Busts were sufficient as a record of a person, unlike
Greek statues which showed the whole body. Roman artists did attach busts to full size statues.
4.
Roman busts were usually carved in marble, often from a wax death mask.
5.
Roman portrait sculptures have intentional realism. a.
They are VERISTIC – which means they are very true to the actual appearance. Portrait busts even show imperfections. b.
The face’s express GRAVITAS – which means they express seriousness and duty. c.
Why did relatives want a record of their deceased family members this way?
6.
These portrait busts were commissioned by affluent
Romans who traced their ancestors back to the founding fathers of Rome. These Romans were called
PATRICIANS.
7.
It was an insult to a patrician to say that he had no portrait busts in his home. This meant that he could not truly trace his ancestors and wasn’t a true patrician.
D.
Pompeii and Herculaneum
1.
The Eruption of Mount Vesuvius
2.
Pompeii Today
3.
Architecture
4.
The Roman House (Villa)
5.
Frescoes
6.
Four styles of Pompeian Frescoes
7.
E.
Masterpieces of Imperial Art and Architecture

Roman Art drew from Greek and Etruscan sources.

Romans used art to communicate the size, power, and authority of the Empire and a specific ruler. Art was at the service of the government.
1.
Statue of Emperor Augustus (Augustus Primaporta)

Etruscan and Ancient Roman Art 6 a.
Augustus’s original name was Octavian. Julius
Caesar adopted young Octavian as his son before he was assassinated. b.
After Octavian defeated all his rivals, the Roman
Senate proclaimed his “Augustus” which means
“exalted.” From this point on Octavian is known as Caesar Augustus. c.
Numerous statues of Augustus were placed in towns and cities all across the Empire. These statues were legal surrogates. Citizens were required to swear allegiance to the likeness in the absence of the emperor. d.
To better interpret this statue it is important to recall that Augustus claimed descent from
Aeneas, the legendary founder of Rome. Aeneas was a son of Venus. e.
Note the winged baby boy by Augustus’s right foot. The boy represents Cupid, son of Venus. It reminds us of Augustus’s divine lineage as a descendant of Aeneas, son of Venus. f.
A youthful warrior – Although Augustus was 76 years old when he died, he is portrayed as a youthful warrior in the prime of his life. Let’s compare this statue with the Spear Bearer
(Doryphoros) by Polykleitos. Note how the new
Roman specificity of identity and dress is grafted onto the idealized striding nude figure of the victorious athlete. g.
Gestures – Augustus raises his right hand in a conventional gesture of command h.
Armor – Augustus wears parade armor decorated with reliefs showing Roman enemies surrendering to the all powerful emperor.
2.
Ara Pacis (Altar of Peace) a.
After defeating all his rivals, Caesar Augustus’s reign began what is known as the PAX
ROMANA, which means the Roman Peace, a
200 year period of peace and prosperity during the Roman Empire. b.
Monument erected in honor of Caesar Augustus for bringing peace to the Roman Empire. c.
It is actually an altar for sacrificing animals, equipped with drains for letting out blood.

Etruscan and Ancient Roman Art 7 d.
The reliefs communicate messages to the
Romans and glorify Augustus. e.
The lower register of reliefs depicts Tellus
(Mother Earth) holding two children on her lap
(possibly a reference to Romulus and Remus).
She is surrounded by a diversity of animals who peacefully lay around her. Also around her, there are bounties of grain and flowers. A vase pours water. All of these elements symbolize peace and prosperity of the Augustan age. f.
Upper Register – depicts a procession of the imperial family and other important dignitaries. i.
Presents the Augustan age as a new
Golden Age similar to the Golden Age of
Pericles in Classical Athens ii.
Note the young children – The presence of men with their families was intended as a moral example expressing the emperor’s political and social agenda. g.
AP QUESTION – In whose honor was this monument erected? How do the style and content of the monument reflect its culture’s social and political values?
3.
Other major structures of the Augustan Age a.
“I found Rome as a city of brick and transformed it into a city of marble.” b.
Building up the Roman Forum – Forum of
Augustus. i.
Julius Caesar had built an extension onto the Forum. ii.
Augustus built his next to Julius Caesar’s.
It was filled with statues of gods and ancestors proclaiming his divine lineage. c.
Pont-du-Gard Aqueduct at Nimes, France i.
What repeating motif can you see in this aqueduct? _____________________ ii.
What was the purpose of an aqueduct?
______________________ iii.
Romans used a lot of water for their baths and fountains. Rome sought to extend these enjoyments throughout the empire.
Why?

Etruscan and Ancient Roman Art 8 iv.
Pont-du-Gard aqueduct crosses the Gard
River in France. It transported water from a source that was 82 miles away! v.
This aqueduct delivered enough water so that the average amount of water for each person was 100 gallons per day. d.
Maison Caree, Nimes, France i.
Classicizing temple in France probably based on Temple of Mars in Augustus’s forum. ii.
Notice the references to Greek temples – entablature, pediment, Corinthian columns iii.
Side columns are ENGAGED – still attached making this a pseudo-peripteral plan (pseudo means false, peripteral temple – columns going all the way around).
4.
For about half a century after the death of Caesar
Augustus, all the succeeding emperors came from
Augustus’s line (Julian line) or his wife Livia’s line
(Claudian line). This period is thus called Julio-
Claudian period.
5.
Emperor Nero was the last emperor of the Julio-
Claudian line. a.
He was forced to commit suicide because he was considered to be crazy. b.
During his reign, a fire swept through Rome burning large amounts of the city. He was in another part of Italy rehearsing for a part in a play, hence the saying that Nero played his fiddle while Rome burned. c.
Nero took advantage of the opportunity and built a large palace for himself in Rome called the Domus Aurea or Golden House.
6.
Nero’s Domus Aurea (Golden House) a.
A VILLA (country house) in Rome b.
An entrance hall large enough for a 120 foot statue of himself as Sol – God of the Sun

Etruscan and Ancient Roman Art 9 c.
A large lake with buildings surrounding it so that his home looked like a city d.
Enough land for farming, vineyards, pastures for animals, and woodlands e.
Parts of the house had plated gold walls with inlaid precious stones f.
Dining rooms had ceilings of ivory which slide back to expose pipes out of which flower petals would flow. g.
Main dining room – circular and its roof revolved day and night h.
Sea water for his baths i.
“Good, now I can at last begin to live like a human being.”
F.
The Flavians (69 – 96 CE)
1.
Background a.
After the death of Nero, Vespasian, a general under Claudius and Nero, took over. Vespasian’s family name was Flavian. b.
His sons were Titus and Domitian. c.
The Flavian dynasty ruled for the next quarter century.
2.
Flavian Amphitheater – Roman Colosseum a.
Called the Colosseum because it was built by a colossal statue of emperor Nero b.
Its construction was began during the reign of
VESPASIAN. c.
It is an AMPHITHEATER, which means double theater (like two Greek theaters put together).
Amphitheaters were used for public spectacles
(gladiator fights, re-enactments of battles, public executions) d.
Why was it built? i.
Even though Rome was the capital of the empire, it did not have its own major amphitheater.

Etruscan and Ancient Roman Art 10 ii.
Glorify the Flavian family by providing a place of entertainment for Romans iii.
Give back to the people after the wicked reign of Nero e.
Size i.
160 feet high, it was the largest building of its kind in the ancient world ii.
80 numbered entrances iii.
Over 50,000 spectators with numbered tickets used 76 entrances. The emperor and his guests used 2 entrances iv.
The final entrances were used by the gladiators f.
Key parts of the Colosseum i.
Arena – sandy floor where fighting took place ii.
VELARIUM – canopy that could be pulled over the audience to provide shade.
Architects are still unsure how the
Romans accomplished this feat. iii.
Extensive use of arches, barrel vaults
(passages through the Colosseum) and groin vaults (intersection of barrel vaults, which led out to the seating area) iv.
Outside of the Colosseum decorated with engaged columns following different orders of architecture –
1.
Tuscan (similar to Doric) at the bottom,
2.
Ionic (middle level),
3.
Corinthian (third level), and
4.
Corinthian PILASTERS
(rectangular form of columns) on the fourth level, where the poles for the velarium were anchored. v.
Why do you think they varied the types of columns?
3.
Arch of Titus a.
Romans invented the triumphal arch. The city of
Rome contained 36 triumphal arches. They commemorated the military exploits of successful generals as well as other major

Etruscan and Ancient Roman Art 11 achievements such as the completion of building projects. b.
The act of passing through the arch symbolized an emperor’s triumphant entry into Rome. c.
The Arch of Titus is 50 feet high and 40 feet wide. d.
Titus died only 2 years into his reign. His brother Domitian erected the arch in 81 AD to commemorate Titus’ capture of Jerusalem and suppression of a Jewish rebellion in 70-71 AD. e.
One interior panel shows a relief of triumphant
Romans carrying treasures from the Temple in
Jerusalem. Note the 7-branched menorah, the ceremonial candle holder. f.
The opposite side interior panel shows the triumphant Titus riding in his chariot. g.
Note the used of engaged COMPOSITE columns
(combines Ionic volutes with Corinthian acanthus leaves) h.
Winged Victories carry laurel crowns in the
SPANDRELS – spaces connecting the vertical parts of the arch with the horizontal lintel i.
Inscription recognizes Titus, son of Vespasian, as a god – usually happened to Roman emperors after they died
G.
High Empire
1.
Background a.
Under Trajan, Hadrian, and Antonine emperors, the Roman Empire reaches its peak size b.
Rome was recognized as the sole power of
Western Europe although Germanic tribes in
Central Europe, Berbers in North Africa,
Parthians and Persians in the Middle East were always a threat
2.
Trajan a.
First non-Italian Roman emperor – born in
Spain b.
Domitian was assassinated in 96 AD c.
The aged Nerva took over and died after 16 months. Before his death, he adopted Trajan, who became his successor d.
A capable and successful leader – expanded the empire and created social programs to help the people

Etruscan and Ancient Roman Art 12 e.
Trajan was given the title Optimus – greatest (a title that he shared with Jupiter). Trajan and
Augustus were the emperors to whom all later emperors would compare themselves.
3.
Trajan’s Forum a.
Fora (plural of forum) were civic centers of
Roman cities. b.
Fora usually included government buildings such as a basilica, temples to gods, and a market place. c.
The Republican Forum was the original forum in Rome, but famous Roman leaders beginning with Julius Caesar added their own additions.
Trajan’s Forum was the largest. d.
Key facts: i.
The architect of Trajan’s Forum was
APOLLODORUS of Damascus – famous architect who worked for Trajan, built a bridge over the Danube River ii.
Trajan’s Forum included the Basilica
Ulpia (Trajan’s family name was Ulpius), a temple for Trajan after he died and was promoted to be a god, libraries, and a theater. iii.
Trajan’s Forum also included the first mall – a marketplace that sold all types of goods from all over the Roman Empire.
APOLLODORUS designed the markets of Trajan as well. iv.
The design of Trajan’s Marketplace makes extensive use of concrete groin vaults.
4.
Trajan’s Column (dedicated 112 CE) a.
An amazing monument – 128 feet tall and once topped with a heroic nude statue of Trajan
(today, a statue of Saint Peter decorates the top) b.
Apollodorus probably conceived of this monument c.
Part of his forum located between the Basilica
Ulpia and Temple of Trajan d.
Celebrated his two successful military campaigns against the Dacians

Etruscan and Ancient Roman Art 13 e.
A 625 foot frieze decorated with 150 different scenes of about 2,500 figures. At one point, the scenes were colored. f.
Shows various different aspects of a Roman military campaign including transporting troops and building camps. Only about ¼ of the scenes show actual fighting. g.
Scenes show Trajan commanding and addressing his troops and sacrificing to the gods. h.
The square base of Trajan’s Column serves as his tomb. His and his wife Plotina’s ashes are stored inside the base. The base is decorated with captured Dacian arms and armor.
5.
Arch of Trajan, ca. 114-118 CE a.
Trajan opened a new road in southern Italy called the Via Traiana in 109 CE. b.
Years later, an arch was erected in his honor. c.
The arch is similar to the Arch of Titus but is covered in exterior reliefs advertising Trajan’s great achievements i.
He gives extra food to needy children ii.
He opened a new port at Ostia, Rome’s harbor at the mouth of Tiber River. iii.
He founded a colony for army veterans. iv.
The emperor was “all things to all people.” v.
The attic of the arch shows a relief of
Jupiter handing Trajan a lightning bolt, granting him dominion over the universe.
H.
High Empire continued
1.
Hadrian a.
A fellow Spaniard, adopted by Trajan to succeed him b.
Admirer of Greek culture, loved the arts, architecture, and literature c.
Wore a beard to imitate the appearance of Greek philosophers d.
Amateur architect e.
Had Apollodorus of Damascus assassinated for disrespecting him and being overly critical of his architectural designs.
2.
Portrait Bust of Hadrian

Etruscan and Ancient Roman Art 14 a.
Hadrian took the throne at the age of 41. He reigned for two decades. b.
He is also depicted as a mature adult who never ages. c.
Hadrian’s bearded appearance set a trend for future emperors. d.
Resembles Kresilas’ portrait of Pericles, the great Athenian leader
3.
Pantheon a.
Built in Rome between 118-125 CE during
Hadrian’s reign b.
Portico i.
Porch-like entrance into the building ii.
16 columns each weighing 60 tons iii.
Resembles a Greek temple (Corinthian columns, entablature with post and lintel support, pediment) c.
Rotunda i.
A huge dome resting on a drum ii.
Influenced by Greek tholos iii.
Dome is 142 feet high with a diameter of
142 feet iv.
A perfect hemisphere v.
Dome includes COFFERS – recessed panels which decorate the dome and relieve weight from the dome. The coffers decrease in size from the base of the dome to the oculus to give the illusion of greater height. d.
Oculus i.
Circular opening 30 feet in diameter located at the apex of the dome ii.
Only source of light e.
What does it all symbolize? i.
The interior could be imagined as the orb of the earth ii.
The dome is the vault of the heavens iii.
The ceiling was once covered with gilded bronze rosettes which enhanced the dome’s symbolism as the starry heavens iv.
As the sun passes through the sky, a natural spotlight is cast into the rotunda,

Etruscan and Ancient Roman Art 15 progressively illuminating the interior. To the Romans, the sun symbolized the eye of
Jupiter, and its penetrating presence inside the temple seemed to make the deity manifest. v.
7 shrines representing 5 planets and 2 luminaries (sun and moon) f.
How was the Pantheon constructed? i.
Illustrates the uses and importance of
CONCRETE ii.
Began with a concrete foundation – a ring of concrete 15 feet deep and 24 feet wide iii.
8 enormous concrete piers spaced to create 7 recesses iv.
6 different mixtures of concrete used from base of drum to the top of the dome – heavier mixture with more stone toward the bottom, lighter mixture with fine pumice toward the top v.
Dome’s thickness decreases as it nears the oculus vi.
Dome’s weight was lessened without weakening its strength through the use of
COFFERS. vii.
Rain was drained off by small inconspicuous openings in the floor which slopes slightly toward the center of the building. g.
Importance i.
One of the most influential designs in architectural history ii.
Influenced Palladio’s Villa Rotunda iii.
Influenced designs by Thomas Jefferson such as his home Monticello.
I.
High Empire continued
1.
Marcus Aurelius a.
Last of “Good Emperors” b.
Seen in the movie “Gladiator” c.
Known as a philosophical man d.
Author of the Meditations – a series of writings composed during his military campaigns – an important work of Stoic philosophy

Etruscan and Ancient Roman Art 16 e.
Spent many years on military campaigns to defend the northeastern frontier of the Roman
Empire from Germanic tribes (opening scene of
Gladiator) f.
Portraits of Marcus Aurelius depict him as a aged, wise man – first portraits of an emperor that give human qualities of the man – sets a trend for later portraits
2.
Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius a.
Only equestrian statue to survive. Saved because
Christians mistakenly thought it was
Constantine, the first Christian emperor. b.
Power is emphasized by his control over his lively and rather nervous horse c.
His right hand is extended in a gesture of power and clemency for an enemy d.
Originally, a figure of a defeated enemy was shown crouching beneath the horse’s upraised hoof e.
During the 17 th century, the statue was placed in the center of the Campidoglio (Capitoline Hill) which was renovated by Michelangelo. f.
Today, the statue is in the Capitoline Museum and a replica stands in the center of the
Campidoglio plaza.
IV.
DECLINE OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE
A.
Introduction
1.
A long period of decline – 180 – 476 CE
2.
Multiple causation a.
Political problems i.
Problems of succession ii.
Weak rulers iii.
Revolving door rulers – In a 50 year period (218-268 CE), Rome had 50 emperors. Of this total, 17 were murdered! b.
Barbarian Pressure i.
Ostrogoths ii.
Visigoths iii.
Vandals c.
Economic Problems i.
Trade deficit

Etruscan and Ancient Roman Art 17 ii.
Inflation d.
Rise of Christianity
B.
Examples of Art and Architecture
1.
Portrait Bust of Caracalla (at the MET!) a.
Part of the Severan dynasty b.
Short cropped hair and stubbly beard to make him look more like a soldier-emperor c.
An aggressive and suspicious facial expression d.
Why? Have you ever heard of the expression
“live by the sword, die by the sword.” When he became emperor, he had his brother Geta killed and his memory damned by the Roman Senate. e.
Caracalla also had his wife killed. f.
Followed his father’s dying advice: Enrich your soldiers, disregard everyone else. g.
Assassinated during a military campaign in the sixth year of his reign.
2.
Baths of Caracalla a.
Bathing in Rome’s public bath houses was a major social activity b.
The Baths of Caracalla was the largest bath complex in the Roman Empire – 50 acres c.
Located in Rome d.
Included a frigidarium (cold-water bath), tepidarium (warm-water bath), and caldarium
(hot-water bath). e.
The frigidarium, which was in the center of the baths, had a dome as tall as the Pantheon’s and its drum was taller. So large that in recent years it was used to hold hundreds of spectators during Italian operas. f.
Walls made of brick-faced concrete g.
Light came in from windows thanks to
FENESTRATED GROIN VAULTS h.
More than just baths – landscaped gardens, lecture halls, libraries, palaestras (exercise courts), and a natatio (swimming pool). One palaestra had a copy of Lysippos’ Weary
Herakles! i.
Beautifully decorated with stucco walls, mosaic floors, and copies of colossal statues. j.
Estimated to hold 1,600 bathers at once.

Etruscan and Ancient Roman Art 18
3.
“Soldier – Emperors” a.
Portrait bust of Trajan Decius i.
Notice the realistic appearance of his face
– An old man with bags under his eyes and a sad facial expression ii.
A nervous expression – shows the precarious situation of Roman emperors during this period iii.
Reigned only 2 years and is best known for persecuting Christians b.
Heroic portrait of Trebonianus Gallus (at the
MET!) i.
Successor of Trajan Decius ii.
A realistic portrait of his head but an exaggerated disproportionate body iii.
Notice the short-hair and stubble beard made popular by Caracalla iv.
Body of a powerful wrestler – massive upper body and strong legs – conveys that he is a mighty ruler v.
Shoes resemble not the shoes of a Roman statesman but the shoes of a boxer working out at the palaestra vi.
Trebonianus Gallus also reigned only 2 years.
C.
Diocletian to the Rescue (284 – 306 CE)
1.
Solutions a.
Doubles the size of the Roman army b.
Wage and price controls c.
Persecution of the Christians d.
Creates the Tetrarchy – rule by four emperors to resolve the problems of succession and assassinations i.
Two Augusti – one for the west and one for the east ii.
Two Caesars – younger rulers, one for the west and one for the east
2.
Portraits of the four tetrarchs a.
Four tetrarchs were often portrayed together on coins and in sculpture in the round

Etruscan and Ancient Roman Art 19 b.
Famous portraits of tetrarchs in Venice (today they are on the corner of Saint Mark’s
Cathedral) c.
Notice that all four rulers have the same appearance i.
Short, squat bodies with cubical heads ii.
Cuirass and capes look the same iii.
Embracing each other in a forced expression of unity iv.
One hand on their swords v.
The only difference – two of the figures have beards (probably represent the older
Augusti) and two do not. d.
The Tetrarchy did not last – Diocletian
(Augustus of the East) decided to retire, which lead to a civil war in the west i.
Diocletian returned to his homeland of
Dalmatia (present-day Yugoslavia) ii.
Built a fortress-palace at Split that was 10 acres. iii.
Laid out like a Roman CASTRUM
(temporary city built by Roman soldiers during a military campaign) iv.
Had large walls with watchtowers to give
Diocletian a sense of security
D.
Constantine (312 – 337 CE)
1.
Background a.
His father was the Caesar of the West b.
When his father died, he became Caesar of the
West and attacked Rome, where the Augustus of the West – Maxentius – held power c.
He defeated Maxentius at the Battle of the
Milvian Bridge. Maxentius was killed during the battle. d.
Before the battle, Constantine saw a sign of a cross of light in the heavens that said ‘in this sign you shall conquer.’ He claimed that the
Christian God helped him win. e.
Constantine and the Caesar of the East –
Licinius signed the Edict of Milan, legalizing
Christianity. f.
Constantine defeated the army of Licinius in the east and had him executed. Constantine became the only emperor of the Roman Empire.

Etruscan and Ancient Roman Art 20 g.
Moved the capital of the empire from Rome to
Byzantium and renamed the city Constantinople.
He made this move “by order of God.” h.
By the early 330’s, Christianity became the de facto religion of the Roman Empire and paganism declined. i.
Deathbed conversion to Christianity in 337 CE.
E.
Major Monuments associated with Constantine
1.
Arch of Constantine a.
82 feet tall with three arcuated passages b.
Largest arch in Rome c.
Borrowed art – Many of its friezes, statues, and medallions were taken from other arches including Arches of Trajan, Hadrian, and
Marcus Aurelius – Good Emperors d.
Scenes show Constantine handing out largess to the people, riding on a horse, defeating his enemies, being crowned with laurel by winged victories.
2.
Colossal portrait of Constantine a.
Immense image of authority b.
The entire statue was estimated to be about 30 feet tall. The head alone is 8 ½ feet high. Other fragments survive. c.
Revived the Augustan image of an eternally youthful head of state – he is shown clean shaven, whereas earlier images show him with a beard d.
He is idealized – appears muscular and without physical imperfections e.
Colossal size, the likening of the emperor to
Jupiter f.
His eyes are oversized and look off into the distance – He is ever vigilant over his empire g.
His right hand was lifted with his index finger point upwards and his left hand held an orb
(Earth) possibly surmounted by a cross.
3.
Basilica Nova (aka Basilica of Maxentius and
Constantine) a.
Begun when Maxentius had control of the city and finished by Constantine

Etruscan and Ancient Roman Art 21 b.
BASILICA – a large rectangular building that functioned as a city hall with government offices and courtrooms. c.
Statue of Constantine stood in the APSE (semicircular niche at the end of the basilica) to impress visitors of the basilica and remind them of his authority. d.
Originally 300 feet long and 215 feet wide with brick-faced concrete walls e.
Side halls have coffered barrel vaults f.
Ceiling had fenestrated groin vaults to provide lighting