Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge
Vol. 6(3), July 2007, pp. 463-467
Use of indigenous plants for sustainable management of livestock diseases in
rural Nigeria
Ayoola Josephine B, R Ofukwu, Ama Teryila & GB Ayoola*
Centre for Indigenous Knowledge in Farm and Infrastructure Management, Farm and Infrastructure Foundation, University of
Agriculture, Private Mail Bag 2373, Makurdi, Nigeria
Email: gbayoola@yahoo.com
Received 24 March 2005; revised 19 March 2007
The paper examines local management of mixed infection of Newcastle diseases, coccidiosis and fowl typhoid in
poultry birds, and Pestes Des Petits Ruminants (PPR) in sheep and goats in the middlebelt of Nigeria, wherein smallholder
farmers either lose all their livestock or sell them off as the period when the diseases are most prevalent approaches. It
discusses the technical and socioeconomic viability of the AKAGA and LOKA technologies that evolved from continued
experimentation with local herbs within the agroecological zone. It concluded that the options are viable and sustainable
within the context of the environment and socioeconomic circumstances of the people concerned.
Key words: Livestock diseases, Nigeria, Indigenous plants, Medicinal plants
IPC Int. Cl.8: A61D, A61K36/00, A61P1/00, A61P1/04, A61P1/10, A61P11/00, A61P11/10
Small holder livestock farming is an important
traditional sector of Nigerian livestock industry
comprising mainly of small ruminants and poultry,
although in some parts including pigs. These animals
play a vital role in the livelihood as they perform a lot
of socio-economic roles besides contributing directly
to family income and nutrition. They are insurance, a
store of value and an important item at festivals and
many cultural rites. Throughout Nigeria, families
keep chickens and other classes of poultry under
management systems that are based on maximizing
output from minimal input hence showing family
poultry as an economically efficient system, which
yields low output, but from an even lower input1. This
low output is evidenced in terms of low egg
production, small sized eggs, slow growth and low
survivability of chicks2. Family poultry at 104 million
out numbers all other livestock in Nigeria, defining its
socio-economic
importance
in
livelihood
improvement especially in the rural areas3. The
farming populace of Ai-inamu community of
Ogbadibo local Government in Benue state of Nigeria
augments their cash crop earning with revenue from
family livestock. It represents significant household
savings, investment and insurance as well as
——————
*Corresponding author
contribution to family income and nutrition. Typical
of Nigerian situation, high incidence of disease
continue to be a major hindrance to livestock
production in the study area4. The most common
ruminant diseases in Ai-inamu community are scabies,
PPR, and helminthiasis; and the most common
poultry diseases include Newcastle disease (NCD),
coccidiosis and fowl typhoid, which may occur as a
mixed infection of the three thus creating an
additional problem of diagnosing aside that of
treatment5.
The paper dwells on two technology options
(AKAGA and LOKA), developed with farmers from
their indigenous plants in a farmer participatory
research. It considers their effectiveness relative to
farmers’ alternative coping options, while also
outlining the policy implications of such indigenous
knowledge development and use.
Methodology
The study area of Ai-inamu community in
Ogbadibo local Government area of Benue state,
Nigeria is situated in the eastern part of Benue state
within the middle belt zone of Nigeria. Data
collection method included combined focused group
discussion and focused group demonstration.
AKAGA technology demonstration involved a total
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INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, VOL. 6, No. 3, JULY 2007
of 12 men and 30 women from about 40 households.
It is prepared by a boiled mixture of one cup (ml)
each of the leaves or bark of Annona senegalensis
Pers., Khaya senegalensis A. Juss (locally called
Achi-oyibo, for respiratory distress), and Anogessius
leocarpus Roxb. (locally called otra- an antibacterial)
with ¼ cup of ginger and one big bulb of alligator
pepper in one gallon of water (Fig. 1). The mixture
boiled for an hour and cooled is administered at a
dose of 1ml/ bird every day for 5-7 days during
disease out break and once every month particularly
between the months of October to February for
preventive measures. AKAGA is given to the birds as
a treatment for NCD coccidiosis and fowl typhoid
singularly and also as a treatment for their joint
infection.
Orthodox options however are specific for each
disease type. The management of NCD involves
vaccinating at 7 days, 3 weeks, 6 weeks and 18 weeks
with NCDV, NCDV lasota, Komoro and NCDV
komorov, respectively. Antistress vaccination is also
administered on the birds. Treatment for coccidiosis
may employ the use of anticoccidial drugs as
preventive, control treatment regiments. Examples are
sulphur drugs (sulphaquinoxaline, sulphamethazine,
etc) Amprolium, Amprol plus, clopindoe, monensin
that are given at various dosages in water for 7 days.
The use of antibacterial drugs such as
sulphamerazine, sulphaquaxaline and antibiotics such
as tetracycline and chloramphenicol is also considered
as treatment for fowl typhoid, which is given in water
for 5-7 days. Orthodox options considered for the
control of PPR in sheep and goats were erythromycin
and streptomycin, while LOKA is the local alternative
prepared from herbs. A ‘no treatment’ control
experiment was also conducted. Again, a veterinary
service provider supplied erythromycin and
streptomycin, which were applied as prescribed.
Materials for the LOKA option included one cup (ml)
each of the leaves or bark of Anogessuis Leocarpus
(otra-an antibacterial) Khaya senegalensis or lemon
grass (achi-oyibo- for respiratory distress) and
Ocinum spp (anyemba-for diarrhoea), with ¼ cup of
potash (kanwa to stabilize the gastrointestinal system)
in one gallon of water. The materials put in a pot are
boiled for an hour and then allowed to cool. LOKA is
prophylactic and so builds up strength in the animal
so that they can withstand the stress of outbreak that
usually occurs in the months of May and December.
LOKA is given 20 ml twice daily for 7 days to young
animals, while 40 ml twice daily for 7 days is given to
sheep and goats in the months of April and
November.
Surveys using group discussions were conducted
before and about 8 weeks after intervention. The
sample comprised 80 farmers including 42 farmers
who participated in the demonstration and 38 farmers,
who did not but were later informed about the
technology. Variables considered in the survey
discussions included effectiveness of treatments, cost
of materials for treatment and benefit from treatment
among others. Effectiveness of technologies was
measured by the number of goats, sheep and poultry
birds that survived disease outbreak, cost of control in
terms of cash and time and services rendered in
orthodox treatment and benefits by the number and
market value of the sheep, goats and poultry birds that
survived. Generally, women and male youths are
responsible for taking care of family livestock in
terms of feeding and caring for the sick, irrespective
of household category. The responsibility is more
evenly shared in polygamous households where men
also contribute in sheep and goats keeping, at an even
ratio of 50% involvement of men, women and male
youths (Table 1). The average poultry size is about 20
birds per household, mostly owned by women and
youths. Similarly, men, women and youths usually
own an average of 4 goats per household. Women and
male youths are most critical targets for intervention
on improved management of PPR infection in goats
and sheep as well as mixed infection in poultry.
Results and discussion
All gender categories including men, women, and
youths especially the poor have access to the
AYOOLA et al.: MANAGEMENT OF LIVESTOCK DISEASES IN NIGERIA
Table1— Gender and care of goats within households
Gender category
Women
Men
Male youths
% Involvement by household category
Monogamous Polygamous Female headed
100.00
100.00
50.00
50.00
50.00
50.00
100.00
materials for preparing the treatment except for
Anogessius leocarpus, which does not grow within
the community but is available in neighbouring
communities. The possibility of propagating the herb
for improving community access was explored, and
its propagation by stem cutting was to be tried. All
gender categories were involved in the technology
development, while men and male youths may be
involved in gathering the herbs, women and female
youths usually prepare and administer treatment on
poultry birds. Nigerian farmers very sensibly do
respond to change provided firstly that it does not
conflict with there time values and secondly that it
pays6.
Incidences of disease outbreak in the past have in
most cases resulted in cent per cent losses in birds, if
no treatment is given. Relative to an alternative of
zero treatment, farmers consider the AKAGA a viable
alternative. AKAGA is associated with a survival rate
of 50-65%. It is quite effective but cheap especially
when considered that it is treatment for a multiple of
diseases in just a single dosage. It is also easily
available, simple to prepare and non-toxic, having
only the economic cost of the time spent in the
collection of the materials for its preparation. Using
the year 2000 factor prices, a household with an
average of 20 poultry birds would require about
N60.00 for modern treatment against mixed infection
of fowl typhoid, Newcastle disease and coccidiosis in
poultry birds to guarantee the survival of at least 10 or
12 out of 20 poultry birds. On the other hand, the
materials for AKAGA are herbs, which are not
necessarily purchased, except for the ginger and
alligator pepper which are not grown in that area,
estimated at about N1.00 / poultry bird. Very poor can
afford N1.00 to treat a fowl and save N14.00 from
avoiding the use of vaccine. The contribution of
AKAGA spells a sustainability, which is consistent
with the status of illiterate, and resource poor farmers
of Ai-inamu community.
Similarly, findings reveal that LOKA treatment
was associated with a survival rate of 70%, about
465
20.5% lower than erythromycin but 10% higher than
streptomycin treatment. Table 2 gives a benefit-cost
analysis of LOKA versus orthodox options.
Erythromycin requires about 15 naira per goat of cash
expenses while LOKA requires just a naira for potash;
implying about 1,400 % incremental monetary outlay
for orthodox treatment. Therefore, a household with
an average of 4 goats will require about 4 naira for
treatment against PPR to guarantee the survival of at
least 3 out of 4 goats. Hence, even the very poor can
afford a naira to treat a goat by LOKA as opposed to
the 15 naira required for administering erythromycin.
However, the total cost of each option being the sum
of the financial commitment on the treatment and the
value of goats that did not survive. Erythromycin is
least expensive while streptomycin is most expensive
(Table 2). On the other hand, erythromycin is most
beneficial, while streptomycin is least beneficial. The
LOKA treatment emerges as being superior to the
streptomycin option in terms of cost saving and
incremental benefit as well as accessibility to farmers
(Fig. 2). The implication is that if only streptomycin is
available, a better option is LOKA with an
incremental benefit of 10%.
However Anogessius leocarpus, which is required
for LOKA, does not grow within the community but
is available in the neighboring communities within a
range of 2-15 km. It is possible to encourage the
propagation of the herb in the local communities for
the purpose of increasing its accessibility (Fig. 3). The
Table 2— Benefit cost analysis of alternative options for PPR in
sheep and goats
Treatment
LOKA
Erythromycin
Streptomycin
Control
Survival rate
(%)
Benefits (N)
Costs (N)
70.00%
90.50%
60.00%
40.00%
7000.00
9600.00
6000.00
4000.00
3004.00
460.00
4060.00
6000.00
Fig. 2—Benefit-cost analysis of alternative options for management of PPR in sheep and goats
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INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, VOL. 6, No. 3, JULY 2007
Fig. 3—Accessibility of herbs for managing mixed infection in
old tree and PPR in sheep and goats
policy aim of sustainable agriculture is environmental,
social and psychological viability especially alongside
the support of farmer-centered approaches7. AKAGA
and LOKA emphasize the above statement pointing to
the sustainability of such knowledge systems. For
resource poor farmers, such credibility has to be in
terms of cheapness, efficacy and general economic
viability consistent with farmers’ economic status.
The simplicity of the AKAGA and LOKA
technologies in terms of preparation circumvents the
problems associated with technologies developed
based on high external inputs, which are most often
not
suitable
to
farmer’s
socio-economic
circumstances8. In most cases, farmers quickly
become empowered in the required skill for such
technologies as it developed from their own practices.
The above attributes are all mutually reinforcing
towards livelihood improvement and sustenance for
the farmer. The relatively low cost implies that even
the very poor can comfortably afford the technologies
while their efficacy reduces the possibility of
economic losses owing to disease attacks. Besides
being indicative of livelihood improvement, these also
will serve as entry points for such knowledge
exploration.
Since indigenous knowledge is constantly
evolving, AKAGA and LOKA technologies leave
room for more refinement while also stimulating
thought to similar knowledge explorations9. The
technologies are regarded as community owned, thus
fostering their commitment to responsibilities towards
further development. Such knowledge is regarded as
an important source of accurate information and a
corner stone of community development10. Therefore,
indigenous communities will continue to regard it as a
vital resource well worth preserving for the benefit of
future generations. In Nigeria perhaps this approach
will signify an important breakthrough in the poverty
question where the absence of participatory policy
formulation and implementation have always being
the core of the matter11. A policy framework, which
begins at the farmer’s knowledge and works upwards
with a view to improving his livelihood, would be
more sustainable especially because it takes
into cognizance his socioeconomic and environment situation. This will create a bi-partisan
institutional mechanism for empowering the
population of farmers as active participants in the
policy process as well as define their rightful roles in
the development process11. There is also the
obligation of encouraging the inextricable connections
between man and his environment where nature is
supported by nature in such a favourable policy
environment.
Acknowledgement
Authors acknowledge the contribution of Mr P
Ekuno in terms of support for fieldwork.
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