Scientific Audit of Marine Parks – Background information
relating to MPA outputs concerning Ecologically Sustainable
Use
This summary and associated references relate to the following Terms of Reference:
“Review the specific science relating to the effectiveness of marine parks in protecting
different habitat types and recommend further action and/or alternative management
arrangements if necessary”
Department of Primary Industries contacts:
Dr Alan Jordan, Marine Park Authority
Alan.jordan@environment.nsw.gov.au
Mob: 0439 418 142
Dr Bob Creese, Research Leader, Aquatic Ecosystems,
bob.creese@industry.nsw.gov.au
tel: 02 4916 3806
mob: 0419 204 967
The MPA Strategic Research Framework 2010-15 has categorised research themes and key
research areas as follows:
Research themes
Biodiversity and ecological
processes
Ecologically sustainable use
Specific environmental impacts
Social and economic influences
Culture and heritage
Key research areas
Habitat knowledge
Biological diversity
Ecological processes
Assessment of zoning
Recreation and tourism
Population biology and assessment of key
species
Fishing and collecting
Pollution and development
Pests and diseases
Climate change
Economics research
Social research
Aboriginal culture
Heritage
This paper deals with the issue of “Ecologically sustainable use” and the related key research
areas identified in italics above. It provides background context to these research areas and a list
of published reports and journal papers, and unpublished reports and theses that are outputs from
NSW Marine Parks Authority research projects. It does not include the broader published literature
on marine park zoning and marine recreation and tourism in NSW, some of which may be relevant
to Marine Parks.
Scientific Audit of NSW Marine Parks: Ecologically sustainable use
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Under the Marine Parks Act 1997, the NSW Marine Parks Authority must prepare a zoning plan for
each marine park to ensure the conservation of biodiversity, maintenance of ecological processes
and sustainable use of resources. The zoning plan provides various levels of biodiversity protection
by regulating activities according to zones, regulating specific activities to manage environmental
impacts, and protecting particular species. The zone types include sanctuary, habitat protection,
general use and special purpose.
The spatial arrangement of sanctuary zones is designed primarily to provide a comprehensive,
adequate and representative (CAR) selection of marine biodiversity. However, it also aims to
protect areas of international, national, regional or local conservation for marine biodiversity; areas
and/or habitats that support protected and threatened species, and/or ecological communities;
complement the conservation of adjacent areas; and protect areas with significant cultural or
historical values.
In NSW marine parks there has been a considerable amount of fine-scale seabed habitat mapping
that is used to examine zoning effectiveness in relation to CAR planning principles (NSW MPA,
2010). This has been complemented by information on the spatial patterns of assemblage
composition on taxa such as fishes (e.g. Malcolm et al. 2010a, b, 2011). Research on marine park
zones primarily aims to examine changes in species, assemblages, and levels of propagation due
to zoning (e.g. Edgar et al. 2009 a, b). Examination of zoning issues also relates to a range of
social issues, such as the evaluation of means of optimising compliance (Read et al. 2011).
Ecological changes resulting from different levels of protection are monitored through a number of
long-term programs, including Underwater Visual Census (UVC) and Baited Remote Underwater
Video (BRUV). These programs aim to test the hypothesis that there are differences in fish
assemblages (diversity and abundance) between sanctuary, general use and habitat protection
zones and areas outside the park on subtidal rocky-reef, and that these differences will increase
over time.
Research has also examined the patterns and levels of non-extractive recreation and tourism use
of marine parks, and the impacts of such activities on habitats and species. For example, research
to evaluate potential impacts of interactions with marine mammals has been conducted in order to
allow improved management of such threats at the local scale (Lemon et al. 2005, 2006, 2007;
Steckenreuter et al. 2011). There are also ongoing issues relating to the potential effect of high
levels of SCUBA diving activities on reef systems, impacts of moorings, and use of the intertidal
zone on sand beaches (Sheppard et al. 2009).
Consistent with other threats to marine biodiversity, there are a range of measures by which
marine biodiversity is protected in addition to marine park zoning. In relation to recreation and
tourism use these include coastal zone management plans, maritime infrastructure and boating
management, conservation agreements, and protected species management.
Scientific Audit of NSW Marine Parks: Ecologically sustainable use
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Bibliography –
NSW MPA published and unpublished literature – Ecologically sustainable use
Assessment of zoning
Published reports and papers:
McKinley A, Ryan L, Coleman MA, Knott N, Clark G, Taylor M and Johnston EL (accepted) Putting marine sanctuaries into context: A
comparison of estuary fish assemblages over multiple levels of protection and modification. Conservation Genetics
Malcolm H, Jordan A and Smith SDA (2011) Testing a depth-based Habitat Classification System against reef fish assemblage patterns in a
subtropical marine park. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 21: 173–185.
Read AD, West RJ, Haste M and Jordan A (2011) Optimizing voluntary compliance in Marine Protected Areas: a comparison of recreational
fisher and enforcement officer perspectives using multi-criteria analysis. Journal of Environmental Management
Malcolm H, Jordan A and Smith SDA (2010a) Biogeographical and cross-shelf patterns of reef fish assemblages in a tropical-temperate
overlap. Marine Biodiversity 40: 181-93.
Malcolm H, Smith SDA and Jordan A (2010b) Using patterns of reef fish assemblages to refine a Habitat Classification System for marine
parks in NSW, Australia. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 20: 83–92.
NSW MPA (2010) Seabed mapping in the Solitary Islands Marine Park and Jervis Bay Marine Park. NSW Marine Parks Authority.
Read AD and West RJ (2010) Qualitative risk assessment of multiple-use marine park effectiveness - a case study from NSW, Australia.
Ocean & Coastal Management 53: 636-644.
Edgar GJ and Stuart-Smith RD (2009) Ecological effects of marine protected areas on rocky reef communities - a continental-scale analysis.
Marine Ecology Progress Series 388: 51–62.
Edgar GJ, Barrett N and Stuart-Smith RD (2009a) Exploited reefs protected from fishing transform over decades into conservation features
otherwise absent from seascapes. Ecological Applications 19: 1967–1974.
Edgar GJ, Davey A, Kelly G, Mawbey R and Parsons K (2009b) Biogeographical and ecological context for managing threats to coral and
rocky reef communities in the Lord Howe Island Marine Park, south-western Pacific. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater
Ecosystems DOI: 10.1002/aqc.1075.
Lindsay MJ, Patterson HM and Swearer SE (2008) Habitat as a surrogate measure of reef fish diversity in the zoning of the Lord Howe Island
Marine Park, Australia. Marine Ecology Progress Series 353: 265–273.
Scientific Audit of NSW Marine Parks: Ecologically sustainable use
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Unpublished reports and theses:
Palmer A (2011) Assessing the effectiveness of marine park zoning using community based snorkel surveys. Masters of Environmental
Management, University of New England, NSW.
Aquenal (2010) Ecological monitoring of reef communities at Lord Howe Island Marine Park, NSW 206-2010. Report prepared by Aquenal Pty
Ltd for the NSW Marine Parks Authority.
Cardno Ecology Lab (2010) Large-scale survey of wobbegong sharks and black cod in relation to closure to fishing. Report prepared by
Cardno Ecology Lab Pty Ltd for the NSW Marine Parks Authority.
Dasey M (2010) Cape Byron Marine Park baited underwater video program, winter 2006 – summer 2009/10. Report to the Marine Parks
Authority.
Neilson J, Jordan A, Gudge S and Kerr I (2009) Baited remote underwater video surveys of fish assemblages on reef shelf habitats in Lord
Howe Island Marine Park. NSW Marine Parks Authority Report to the Department of Environment, Water and Heritage, 47 pp.
Aquenal (2008) Monitoring of biotic changes at Lord Howe Island Marine Park, New South Wales February 2008. Report prepared by Aquenal
Pty Ltd for the NSW Marine Parks Authority.
Gladstone W (2008) Evaluating the benefits of protection to fish and macroinvertebrates on shallow rocky reefs within the Port Stephens-Great
Lakes Marine Park. Report prepared by the University of Newcastle for the NSW Marine Parks Authority.
Barrett N, Edgar G, Polacheck A, Lynch T and Clements F (2006) Ecosystem monitoring of subtidal reefs in the Jervis Bay Marine Park. Report
by the Tasmanian Aquaculture & Fisheries Institute, University of Tasmania to the NSW Marine Parks Authority.
Malcolm H (2004) SIMP reef-fish monitoring program: status report. Unpublished report for the NSW Marine Parks Authority
Lindsay M (2004) How the lack of ecological information effects the sitting of marine reserves: a case study of the Lord Howe Island Marine
Park. Honours Thesis, University of Melbourne, Victoria.
Taylor L (2003) The effects of rezoning of the northern section of the Solitary Islands Marine Park on the local community. Honours Thesis,
Southern Cross University, NSW.
Recreation and tourism
Published papers and reports:
Steckenreuter A, Harcourt R and Moller L (2011) Are speed restriction zones an effective management tool for minimizing impacts of boats on
dolphins in an Australian marine park? Marine Policy doi:10.1016/j.marpol.2011.05.013
Sheppard N, Pitt KA and Schlacher TA (2009) Sub-lethal effects of off-road vehicles (ORVs) on surf clams on sandy beaches. Journal of
Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 380: 113–118.
Scientific Audit of NSW Marine Parks: Ecologically sustainable use
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Lemon M, Cato D, Lynch T and Harcourt R (2007) Short-term behavioural response of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops aduncus) to recreational
powerboats. Bioacoustics
Lynch TP, Spencer JA, Burleigh A and Lemon M (2006) The response of seals, dolphins and sea eagles to human disturbance at the Jervis
Bay Marine Park. Proceedings of the Royal Zoological Society of NSW.
Lemon M, Lynch TP, Harcourt RG and Cato DH (2005) Response of travelling inshore bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops aduncus) to experimental
approaches by a powerboat in Jervis Bay, New South Wales, Australia. Biological Conservation 127: 363-372.
Unpublished reports and theses:
Brookhouse N (2011) Impacts, risks and management of fish feeding at Neds Beach, Lord Howe Island Marine Park. Honours Thesis,
Southern Cross University, NSW.
Demers M (2010) Dragging the chain: impacts of permanent mooring systems in seagrass meadows of Jervis Bay Marine Park, NSW,
Australia. Honours Thesis, University of Wollongong, NSW.
Hartley S and Gorton D (2008) Monitoring the frequency and survivorship of coral disease at the heavily-dived and rarely-dived sites adjacent
to Julian Rocks, Northern NSW. Report to Marine Parks Authority.
Sheppard N (2008) Sublethal effects of off-road vehicles on pipis (Donax deltoides): determining the effects of off-road vehicles on the body
condition and burrowing behaviour of pipis. Honours Thesis, Griffith University, Queensland.
Bilgmann K and Lynch TP (2007) Time series (1998–2007) sighting rates for bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops aduncus) by a commercial dolphin
watch operator in Jervis Bay. Report to the NSW Marine Parks Authority, 26 pp.
Bucher D, Hartley S, Dimmock K and Roberts (2007) The sustainability of SCUBA diving at Julian Rocks, Cape Byron Marine Park, New South
Wales. Report to the Marine Parks Authority.
Bell TA (2005) The impact of four wheel drive vehicles on, and the natural variation of, sandy beach meiofauna. MSc Thesis, University of New
England, NSW.
Crawford D (2003) Impact monitoring of anchoring and mooring damage to seagrass meadows in Jervis Bay and an appraisal of monitoring
methods. Honours Thesis, University of Wollongong, NSW.
Lloyd T (2003) Boating activity in the Solitary Islands Marine Park; spatial and temporal patterns and implications for management. Honours
Thesis, Southern Cross University, NSW.
Wellington CN (2003) Recreational use survey of the Brunswick River. Report from Earth Sense Consulting to the NSW Marine Parks
Authority.
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