IOANNA STERIOTOU
ARCHITECTURAL FORTIFIED HERITAGE
Restoration- Rehabilitation- Revitalization
There is no doubt that the fortifications (military structures) of all the historical periods, of any extend and importance, they have a significant place in the framework
(field) of the Architectural Heritage. Fortifications small or grand, inaccessible, isolated in the countryside today, near or inside city-centers, they are the History itself of their region, the beginning or the end of a historical period, they are the testimony of the historical importance of a country.
For this special character of the military structures, professor Ap. Vakalopoulos wrote: "The castles, vigilant guards of the Cultural Heritage of the Man (Humanity), mute witnesses of the Past, they impress always, not only the experts but everyone, with their silent presence".
First of all I would like to present briefly, the international experience of the scientific research upon fortifications, approaching the subject through the activity of the International Institute of Castles and its Scientific Council.
The International Castles Institute [in German, Internationales Burgenforschungs
Institut - IBI -] was set up in the II International Congress held by the Swiss
Government in July 1949 at Zurich, with the delegates of 17 countries. In accordance with its name, one of its aim was "to establish Castellology as an independent discipline within the frame of architectural and historical studies as well as to coordinate the international efforts in this field".
Actually those early years of the Institute were not so stable. In 1957, under the presidency of dr von Tscharner, with professore Pietro Gazzola as vice-president and a second vice-president dr Köhler, the team gave stability to IBI, consolidated it through personal contact and scientific activities, and continued pushing the publication of the Bulletin, The Museum and the Library.
After the Madrid Assembly (1962), the IBI- Bulletin became more scientific, and the presence of IBI in the European cultural and political Organizations was consolidated. In 1990, the Assembly elected sir Christopher Audland as President, who was already vice-president of Europa Nostra , so he could reach a satisfactory merger agreement. This was the starting of Europa Nostra united with IBI (EN/IBI).
The merger combined the contacts and activities of both organizations abd facilitated the safeguard work of the European Cultural Heritage, as well as its study and popularization. The first Assembly of EN/IBI (September 1991), approved the ways of protection of the Cultural Heritage: to awake public interest, to organise conferences and workshops, to promote scientific studies through the Scientific
Council and to encourage conservation with an Annual Award and a Fund.
About The Scientific Council (SC) some more information is that its establishment started in 1959, due to the initiative of dr von Tscharner, who wanted to fulfil the IBI foundation scientific aims, and appointed Piero Gazzola as SC-President. The SC aims are:
1. to attract the attention of States, owners and public opinion on the safeguard and
revitalization of fortified architecture,
2.to promote studies and research within IBI and in relation with UNESCO,ICOMOS.

After the merger of IBI with Europa Nostra, in the new Statute of the two organizations, it is referred to something more for SC's activity:
1.The SC may undertake activities deemed useful in the fulfilment of its duties, that may include: responding to requests for technical advice from national, regional, provincial or municipal authorities, or from private organizations, as regards the constitution of programmes of conservation or of valorization; or to consultations concerning the restoration of historic buildings; replying to questions put to it by such organizations; study or research relating to ancient fortified works and buildings, castles, and dwellings having a historic character, or their ruins, and associated parks and gardens.
2.The SC may arrange such conferences, meetings and manifestations as it thinks useful.
"Castellology", the science of castles, can pose two different questions; a. why is it, where it is ? and b. what the role of a particular castle? The first question involes the coordinated strategic view of military aims; the second is related to logical and technical factors and military requirements. A castle could be considered from both points of view. In the field of the rehabilitation of the fortifications, the problems of their scientific research, the rules and principles, followed by the projects of their restoration- revitlization- reutilization, it has begun several years ago. (*1)
Some significant steps have been done. A fundamental criterion in this problem must be that the fortification, as monument, it is a "source" of historical reference, a place where the historical memory still exists, and it could take another cultural role, participating in the life of today, as symbol, not of military power, but as a symbol of cultural activity.
Apart from the fact that the works, erected by man for defence purposes, are of majors historical importance, their impact on the agricultural and urban landscape is so evident that their disappearance would represent an irreversible loss of the values of our civilization to future generaions. (*2)
For many of the fortifications the characteristics of the monument as huge sites are their historic and symbolic value in combination with their environmental value.
Indeed, they should be dealt with as straddling both culture and development, especially with regard to human development in modern society, since heritage is a symbol of the cultural identity of a people at any time. (*3)
The analysis of the possibility for the revitalization and reutilization of the fortifications and the concerned projects, it demands the knowledge and the profound experience of the subject, it demands the collaboration of many disciplines: architects-restorers, archeologists, historians of art, geologists, civil engineers, topographers, conservators, chimical engineers and so on; because it should not be forgotten that castles are rich documents of themselves, which must well studied.
Everyone must remember that the main function of fortifications is to accomlish
(guarantee) general security, thereby compelling the theater war to take place elswhere. The judicial, administrative and fiscal control of the territory, including the collection of excise duty, was of secondary importance through it played a greater part in the lives of the subject population. (*4) A castle was a test of human capacity within a certain cultural place and time, and represents different artistic and technical influences. (*5)
The great debate about the reanimation- reutilization- rehabilitation of the fortifications has occupied several times the Meetings of the Scientific Council of the
International Castles Institute (IBI). Dr J.Taylor referring to the situation in Great
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Britain, he presented other points of view for the subject. "…There are a very great number of medieval castles in Great Britain and the great majority of them are now ruins and out of use….We may then go on to look at the English approach to the problem of preservation and the art of presentation, bearing in mind that if that approach did not command general approval and arouse public interest in sufficient degree, our ruined monuments would not be welcoming the enormous numbers of tourists who are now coming…. Broadly speaking, revived interest and new life is not gives of them by rebuilding them or creating new uses them. Ruins are left as ruins… if crenellations or machicolations have been destroyed they are not put back… our aims is to confine ourselves strictly to the works of repair that are necessary to ensure their stability to bring out and accentuate their interest and make them intelligible to intelligent people, and to prolong their survival in the form in which they have come down to use… However, that what has been said will have been sufficient to show that there is no necessity to rebuilt a ruined castle or to seek a modern use for it, in order to give it life and meaning in its own right in the modern age…. A ruined castle should be able to give pleasure and instruction to those who find inspiration and delight in the visible evidences of past splendour". (*6)
Dr Leonardo Villena, also, in the same Meeting, he presented some important proposals within the situation in Spain: "…Before establishing a reanimation policy we have to consider why the castles were built on such spots, what was their original use, why they were forsaken, and how they became ruins. Only then we can try to find the reason for keeping them alive, the use to which they can be devoted and how a logical restoration or adaptation can be made, because on the contrary the castle would be abandoned again later on….Knowing already what we have to save, the reasons for it and the causes of the abandonment we can try to combine the necessary conditions for their logical reanimation and keeping. The ideological and spiritual conditions in Spain are now in favour of the castles. The State has taken every castle under its protection. It devotes great amounts to save as many as possible. However, it is evident that this meritorius work can not achieve the three points we aim towards:
1.
to reduce to a minimum the decay and natural deterioration consolidating and clearing what still exists,
2.
to preserve the castles in such a way that it is instructive and easily comprehensible for the normal visitor, but without adding of doubtful authenticity,
3.
to make the visit easy thanks to clearly marked and good roads, facilities to see the interior, short and clear guide-books, etc. (*7)
Another point of view, very interesting, it is that the fortifications, along main routes (communication ways), protecting existed natural or strategic roads, populations and wealth, they could be now significant points (landmarks) and witnesses not only of the History, but of cultural communication between people; to create new, modern networks between countries.
We can also summarize some main, significant themes, presented during IBI-
Scientific Council's Meetings, concerning the subject of FORTMED- Programme:
- from the IX Meeting (Viseu, Portugal, 21-27 September 1969), under the general
subject "The Charter of Venice and the restoration of the castles"; the limits of the
right to demolish parts of a fortification in order to uncover other fortified structures
from more ancient times; the limits of the possibilities to reconstruct for new uses.
(*8)
- from the XIII Meeting (Paris, 9-15 September 1973), under the general subject "The
policy of cultural entertainment and the touristic promotion of the fortifications ":
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the relationship between Restoration and Revitalization; the tourism and its role in
the rehabilitation of the fortifications; the activation of all the responsible Authorities
( local and regional ); the initiatives that must be taken by the national Authorities.
(*9)
Some interesting proposals and ideas, presented by dr L.Gerö during the same
Meeting, are the following: "…The historical castles are protected monuments; being monuments, they are important documents of a country's historical and artistic
Past.Yet at the same time, they are living elements of tourism… A castle is in itself an interesting and attractive factor of tourism. As a ruin it is a characteristic element of the landscape, and its particular appearance is surrounded by the atmosphere of the historical events that took place within or at the foot of the castle walls…But the touristic point of view raises the question how to make use the castles….One is to use castles as museums. One may show here the course of the castles' history, may step up a weapon collection, an exhibition of war history, as well as permanent or changing exhibitions of local history, ethnography, fine arts….Castles may be used as tourists' hotels if possibilities are limited…In special cases a castle may be the home of various institutions of not too numerous staff…Maintenance, conservation, restoration, showing of castles, development of their environment, in short presentation of the whole monument, and specialized work devoted to this, may be a touristic demand in itself, may be a certain thing of interest, with which more and more people are concerned in our days ". (*10)
At the end, we could presented some important points of the Final Resolution of
IBI-Scientific Council, decided during its XXXVI Meeting (Prague, 10-14 September
2000), under the general subject "Fortifications and Archeology".
Preliminary research: bibliography and archive research; geographical and geological analysis of the site; sociological research; landscape analysis of the site; archeological tests; topographical survey of the site; geometric reliefs and material survey of the buildings; search for a compatible usage of the buildings and their surrounding through a real utilization process of urban and environmental resources; restoration and conservation project of buildings and their landscape.
"Every on-site intervation, or alteration, should not be carried out unless all the above mentioned steps (preliminary research) have been followed, especially in the case of large scale urban or landscape complexes, where a rigorous observance of the entire series of research-work is fundamental.
"Being that archeological excavations show portions of ancient buildings and founds, no excavation is allowed withhout the consequent project of conservation, restoration and valorization.
"Archeology has a fundamental role to play in the conservation of our heritage, nevertheless it has to avoid to prevaricate the role of restoration.
"The archeological parks should be active elements within the cultural landscape, pathway, tree and water and also space for social activities can be utilized to offer a living image of the past considered as an essential mean of the protection of presentday creativity.
"Being that architecture has a life cycle which undergoes continuous transformations, any attempt at halting this process, through reconstructing in the supposed original shape, become equivocal. The new utilization in case of ruins cannot provide the reconstruction of buildings, but their conservation and valorization with the surrounding landscape.
"In archeology stratigraphic methods could not be utilised only for the extraction of archeological finds or for reclaiming land.
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"Every intervetion of conservation, restoration or valorization, also of ruins, has to supply the visitors with the necessary information regarding transformations, discovered during the archeological survey of introduced according to the conservation, or restoration plan and project".
Concluding this brief introduction to our subject, I am referring to some ideas of
G.Perbellini about the relationship between Conservation and Creativity.
"Conservation and restoration should therefore again be considered as creative acts, if we wish to rediscover the essential, ethical purpose between our actions. Our action should not however ignore the needs of our time. A new science of conservation should therefore develop: The science of re-use borrowing from conservative restoration precepts and from principles of town and country planning, and indeed of sociology…We may affirm that the protection of the historic fabric, whether urban or rural, does not consist only- as was possible in the past- in the conservation of castles, villas, parks or gardens, considered as autonomous elements. Today, conservation is intimately linked to the way of life and the destiny of thousands of citizens. Simply conservation is no longer sufficient and town and country planning, conceived as the science of place, must again pursue the aims which there were those of culture, even of Utopia, aims appropriate to the era running from the Age of Enlightnment to the first half of our century: it is necessary in other words, to add to the calculations of economic profitability the role of simple methods, whilst not making of them the principal aim of creation". (*11)
EXAMPLES OF VARIOUS EUROPEAN COUNTRIES
The experience in the field of conservation- reutilization- reanimation
of fortifications
In Denmark the new conception about the preservation of the fortifications
(especially for these of the bastion period), is not only the substantial restoration of the monument, through suitable new uses, the demolition of later buildings and constructions, but also the re-establishment of earthworks, such as it has been decided to be done in the Kastellet Fortress (17 th
cent.) in Kopenhagen; by this way, the character of the fortification manifests its unique historic importance, both in a cultural and architectural sense. (*12) Fig. 1, 2
The Viking fortifications stand as ancient monuments amid the landscape, having no other function than to be there in their own right, often combined with a museum or visitors' centre. On the other hand, the huge system of Renaissance ramparts and moats is covered with vegetation consisting of trees, having originally served a practical defended purpose but these days often being used green recreational areas.
(*13)
A very characteristic example is that of the Kronborg Castle at Elsinore in the northern part of Zealand, controlling the marittime route between Denmark and
Sweden. The Renaissance castle was erected in 1577. The defence works were modernized several times. It could be siad that the most severe assault on this fortification was not a military attack, but a civil one. It came in the 1880s when a shipyard required an extension to the harbour of the town. As a consequence, outer works of Kronborg Castle disappeared, never to return again. But the shipyard closed
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down in 1983 and consideration was immediately given to the question of what was to become of the site as a whole. There were several proposals for projects; from a conservation point of view, the most interesting solution is the reconstruction of the ravelins, glacis, esplanade and other outer defensive works. The objective would be to establish the castle and the town as an entity and to use the esplanade for recreational purposes, in harmony with its historic origins. For the town of Elsinore, tourism represents activity and income, but it must be stressed that only well-planned, wellmanaged tourism that respects the cultural heritage and the integrity of the monument are acceptable. (*14) Fig. 3,4
The historical architectonic heritage of Poland suffered great losses in the Second
World War. Such large historic centers as Warsaw, Wroclaw, Gdansk and Torun were ruined. That was the starting point for an important discussion of the ways for the devasted monuments reconstruction. Architect Zachwatowicz promoted the thesis of the necessity for a total restoration of the monuments in their original form, as seen in documents and old photographs. Fig. 5
That romantic idea of the total reconstruction of the monuments for the national purposes, appeared much earlier on the Polish territories, in the middle of the 19 th century, when Poland lost its independence. In the new situation, the country after war rebuilding shows the influence of political factor in the preservation programme.
Great efforts and large financial means were spent on the rebuilding of historic towns and their monuments; the most important achievements of preservation were undertaken in the seventies.
As the result of the post-war territorial change, within the borders of Poland included Malbork , one of the most important medieval European fortress which was centuries under the Prussian rule. The Malbork castle was built at the beginning of the
13 th
century, after the arrival of the Teutonic Order in Poland, which became from
1309 the residence of the Grand Masters. After the Thirteen Years War (1454-66) the town with the castle itself was incorporated an remained Poland for 300 years.
The restoration, started by Konrad Steinbrecht in 1882, through based on a very thorough historical research including the numerous Polish sources, bringing back the ideal appearance of the Teutonic castle. That was why, despite the careful research, many later phases were replaced by hypothetical reconstructions, which made the whole structure into a puristic form.
The military operations of 1944-1945 damaged seriously the castle and the town below. The first post-war period was connected with organization and securing activities. It was only after the fire of 1959 that the Castle Museum was opened and a complex programme of preservation was prepared. The work in the High Castle was divided into three phase (a painting exhibition of the Monk's Tower, exhibitions of artistic crafstmanship, administrative quarters and a coffee house were organized, also an exhibition of medieval weapons in the Knight Chamber and a large collection of
Gothic architectonic details, most of them dating from Steinbrecht's search. The
Polish doctrine of preservation, both in the past and in the present times, we can notice strong romantic elements. (*15)
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In the Federal Republic of Germany, financial grant had been given from the government to reconstruct and preserve architectural monuments which are of special national importance. In the time between 1951 and 1988, 135 million marks had been made available to support 220 historical buildings which were of nationwide significance. Among others: Die Kaiserpfalzen Goslar and Paderborn, die Zitadelle
Berlin-Spandau and some other castles and palaces.
Communal programmes, running for a period of 5 to 10 years to reconstruct former city-walls (for example Kempen/ Niederrheim and Münstereifel) and municipal castles (f.e. Bielefeld and Blomberg) had nearly everywhere been brought to an end.
In 1985, Nordrhein Westfalen passed a resolution about a programme called
"Historical town-centres", which included 24 cities. That programme was sponsored with a summe of 15 million marks every year. All objects, included in that preservation programme, among them historical ground plans of former fortifications and city castles gave great evidence of earlier city-architecture and its culture.
After 1945 many private owners of castles, palaces and country estates had in years rebuilt their historical monuments.
Public using of castles and palaces should always be subordinated to private using.
Personal engagement of preservation of historical buildings was joined by traditional values, by which also profits the particular municipality. Using as a museum did not permit total preservation of historical substance, while using as a hotel or restaurant involved the danger of alienation. Using as parish hall, municipal hall, cultural centre or as a concert hall justified upkeep by public funds. Already in 1949, 14 castles had been used as youth-hostels.
In smaller castles, announcement of visiting groups in advance had been well-tried, especially in those cases, where complete separation od the privacy of the owner was not possible. (*16)
In Finland, there is an exeptional case of the reanimation of a fortress, even if it belongs to the 18 th century fortifications.
The sea fortress of Suomenlinna , built on rocky islands in the harbour of Helsinki is a cultural treasure. It combines colorful history, beautiful nature, and a living cityscape. In 1991, UNESCO included Suomenlinna in its Lists of World Heritage sites as a unique monument to military architecture. Sweden started the building of
Suonmlinna in 1748, when Filand was still a part of the Swedish kingdom. Fig. 6
The fortress of Suomenlinna has guarded east and west. Its walls have sheltered both arts and science. Thanks to Suomenlinna, Helsinki became the capital of Finland.
Today you can feel the fortress breathing the history of Finland and the Baltic Sea.
The visitor may wanter between heavy stone walls, admire beautiful buildings and enjoy the beauty of the Archipelago. Suomenlinna is Helsinki's top sight. Almost half million people a year from around the world visit the museums, galleries, restaurants, cafès, parks, and beaches on the island. For many people, the fortress is also a home or a place to work in. But Suomenlinna is, above all, a splendid place for outdoor activities: sunny days on the rocky hills, a picnic in the park, walks along the sea in the fall, visits to the beach or even a walk on a freezing winter day. (*17)
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In Czech Republic, there is a significant number of medieval castles, with a long history through the centuries. After great damages from wars- conflicts, fires and so on, they made many intervetions and reconstructions. Today, these castles appear restored- renovated- reanimated, in great scale, offering their inner spaces for exhibitions, various cultural activities, and museums themselves as fortified structures. As the main parts (wings) of these castles were royal residences, or residences of nobil families, the new uses mentioned above, are able to be applicated.
The medieval walls, which surround the central parts of the castles, remain in quite good conditions, sometimes inside forests, many times not easy to be accessible. The castles of Zebrak, Tocnik, Krivoklat and Karlstejn are the most important medieval fortifications of the Central Bohemia. I am presenting two very characteristic examples: the castle of Krivoklat and that of Karlstejn.(*18) Fig. 7,8
The castle of Krivoklat , which is one of the best known Czech cultural sites, still remains concealed in the depths of a remote forest massif- the Premysl dynasty hunting forest. This was not only a favorite temporary residence of Czech princes and kings, but was also the heart of monarchial holdings. The castle at present site was built around the year 1230. At that time, it was part of the oldest series of monarchial fortifications of a new kind- the highest Medieval stone castles- which replaced the decaying early Medieval hillforts.
The glory of the Krivoklat of the Premysl kings unfortunately suffered greatly as the result of a great fire in the first decades of the 14 th century, for which archeological evidence has been discovered. Wenceslas IV, son of Charles IV, began complex reconstruction in the last decades of the 14 th
century. In the framework of this work, the area of the castle was greatly extended and the route of the approach road into its premises was changed.Unfortunately this did not last long. The catastrofic fire on
March 18, 1422 in the afternoon and the subsequent four sieges and conquest alternately by Hussite and Catholic soldiers led to extreme damage in the castle. The last great period of glory for Krivoklat was heralded by lavish reconstruction under
Vladislav of Jagellon. The building work was begun in the 1470s. Its magnificent late gothic appearance was somewhat damaged in the 16 th century by another small fire.
Another fire, in 1643, was a catastrophe and marked the gradual, irremediable decline of the castle. From 1685 to 1733, it was sold to the Waldstejn family, and then it passed to the Fürstenberg family. In 1826, the castle experienced another grievous fire. In the second half of the 19 th
century and first third of the 20 th
century they began to salvage and restore it. Except for a few unfortunate exceptions, the interventions consisted of true restoration which in no way detracted from the nature of the historical monument.
In 1929, the Fürstenberg family sold their estates along with the Krivoklat castle to the Czechoslovak State. However, utilitarian use, including a successful brewery, continued into the 50's . The poor technical condition of the historical monument necessitated at least repairs to the most dilapidated parts during the 60's and historical restorations were carried out from the beginning of the 70's, with varying success; simultaneously, the castle was the object of archeological studies. Thanks to these prolonged archeological investigations, irreplaceable information has not been lost here except for a few exceptions, and Krivoklat remains, in the many aspects of its varied lifetime, one of the best studied castles of Czech medieval times.
The most famous of all the Czech castles, Karlstejn, stands on a rocky limestone outcrop in the middle of a basin surrounded by higher hills, in a village of the same
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name, which lies on the left bank of the Berounka in the western part of central
Bohemia. The literature to date has given the traditional foundation date of the castle as 1384; the first mentions of it, however, come from the very beginning of the
1350's. The castle was the first of Charles IV's buildings in Bohemia to bear his name.
It was originally conceived as a place of rest and quiet contemplation for its founder, but this concept during the course of construction and the content of the castle changed; it finally became the depository for the Imperial and Bohemian Crown
Jewels, and ultimately a symbol of the Bohemian monarchy itself. In 1422, it was intensively, albeit unsuccessfully, invested by Prague Hussite forces. During the reign of Wladislaw Jegiello, Karlstejn became the definitive symbol of the land, set above the region at the kingdom. Late Gothic renovations to the Burgrave's residence awaited the administration of Burgrave benes of Weitmile, and it was clearly under the Lord of Hradec that entry to the castle was gained by new gates. Between 1578 and 1597 the castle was reconstructed in the Renaissance style by the builder oldrich
Avostalis da Sala. In 1646, Karlstejn was plundered by the Swedes. From this time on interest in the castle declined, and the castle began gradually to fall into dispair.
Interest in the castle was reinvigorated by the Romanticism of the 19 th
century.
Between 1888 and 1897 it was restored in a purist fashion to a project by F.Schmidt corrected and completed by Josef Mocker. These interventions affected the exteriors and ruined greater part of the buildings of the Burgrave's Court; the first two gates were also taken down and rebuilt. Although this unfeelingly purist approach, rooted in a desire to return the castle to an idealised medieval appearance, was the subject of criticism even in its own time, it must be pointed out that several discoveries were documented and preserved, and the quality of all the work carried out.
Already at the beginning of the present century the first voices criticizing the puristic reconstruction of the castle made themselves heard. Numerous discussions are still waged on this theme. However, with the passing of time the negative attidutes towards the results of the restoration of Karlstejn Castle changed. They were a manifestation of their time and must be judged accordingly. In spite of a number of negative aspects the restoration of the outstanding historic monument preserved its interesting interiors and inimitable atmosphere which still present visitors with a view of the original wall paintings of the time of Charles IV. Through its majestic appearance it documents explicitly the importance which its founder, the Czech king and emperor Charles IV, attached to it.
In Cyprus, a very characteristic example is the castle of Kolossi , on the southern region of the island near Limassol. The castle, which is preserved in a very good conditions , dates back to 1454, and it was built of the ruins of an older castle which was constructed at the beginning of the 13 th
century. It is a most impressive square and well built structure, which is very similar to a tower. It reminds us of similar towers in Europe. For the period of its construction, the castle offered satisfactory security to the neighbourhood. At Kolossi and the surrounding areas there were sugarcane plantations, which were irrigated by the waters of the river Kouris. These plantations belonged to the order of the Knights of St. John, who cultivated them.
Kolossi consituted an important area for sugar production. There were, also, a sugarcane mill and a sugar refinery, the production of which belong to the House of
Martini of Venice. This mill, which dates back to the 14 th century was built at the east
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side of the castle; a great part of it still exists. The solid construction which characterises the castle has proved able to protect it through the centuries and also from many and strong earthquakes which befell the surrounding area and in particular from the earthquakes sook Limassol in 1904 and 1906.
The castle consists of three storeys. The entrance to the second storey was possible by a drawbridge which was on the south side. The bridge was pulled with the help of special chains, the marks of which are still very clearly visible from the arched entrance. This drawbridge together with the platform on which it rested when was down, they were destroyed and replaced in 1933 with a stone staircase which exists to-day, and a new drawbridge also. On the roof-platform of the castle, just over the entrance which leads to the second storey, there is a scalding (machicoulis) with five openings. The grand Commander or, more often, his lieutenant had their residence on the third storey. The roof-platform of the castle which has a square shape had nineteen battlements at its four sides for the defence of the castle. The three sides were restored in 1933 according to the fourth side, which was preserved. The roofplatform of the castle of Kolossi offers to its visitors, a superb view over the countryside, while in the distance one can see the Salt Lake of Limassol. (*19) Fig. 9
In Italy, many of the medieval fortifications, inside or nearby cities or historical centers, especially when they exist up to the surrounding hills, their conditions of preservation are more or less mediocre; sometimes the local authorities, or other responsibles try to keep them clean and capable for visiting with safety. Some characteristic examples are the following.
Asolo , known as the town of a hundred horizons or the Pearl of the Venetian
Region , is one of the most enchanting small historical towns in Italy. The city still keeps its ancient look: it is situated inside the old walls and dominated by the austere fortress on the top of the hill, called Rocca.
Thanks to its privileged position and its nice climate, Asolo is a centre of population since the Neolithic period. It became an important Roman Municipium in the 1 st
century B.C., as it situated near one of the main connecting roads, the Via Aurelia.
This very old Christian centre was an archiepiscopal seat until 969. During the barbarian invasions, Asolo suffered much damage and destruction. Later, in the Middle Ages, the Da Romano, the Da Camino, the Della Scala, the Da Carrara and the free city of Treviso followed one another as rulers of this small town that, in the first half of 14 th
century, chose to belong to the
Serenissima. In 1489 Venice invested Caterina Cornaro, the exiled Queen of Cyprus,
Jerusalem and Armenia, with the Seigniory of Asolo and she reigned there with great magnificence until 1509. The city has maintained a suggestive medieval look, sited between the very old walls and dominated by the millenary "Rocca", a strong construction on the top of the hill protecting the medieval city. The Castle was the palace of Caterina Cornaro from 1489 to 1509; it is an old massive construction which has been often altered; its typical tower with the clock is original; Eleonora
Duse's Theatre is located inside . (*20)
Marostica is situated among beautiful hills with a fertile plain immediately below, near Bassano del Grappa. After the fall of the Roman Empire, and the Edict of
Constantine (313 A.D.), Marostica became an important Cristian centre. Following the collapse of Longobard power in Italy due to the Franks of Charlemagne (774),
Marostica was incorporated into the Carlovignian county of Vicenza and remained under this rule until 887. In 9 th
century Marostica was closed with fortifications,, of
Roman origin, being strengthened from the Pauso to the Agù, in face of the terrible
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danger that was posed by the Hungarians. The 10 th
century, which is included by historians among the dark centuries of the early Middle Ages, and which is characterized by a fall in the population and by a series of economic crises, is important in a religious sense for Marostica. The Ezzelini, feudatories of German origin, present in the inland of Veneto (back to before 1140), the Vicentini (1259-
1266), the Padovani (1266-1311), the Scaligeri (1311-1387), the Visconti (1387-
1404), the rule of Venice (1404-1797), were masters of Marostica for centuries.
During the Scaligeri rule, with Cangrande the process of the transformation of the town-planning gets underway, with the relocation of the heart of the town from the old Roman and medieval Borgo, to the present-day centre within the walls. Indeed, the construction of the Lower Castle, also known as the "Castello da Basso", dates back to the years 1312 and onwards. The Lower Castle, which is completely crenellated, has a rectangular plan and it is a typical enclosed castle, built beside an imposing keep. It is a valuable example of military architecture. After the war of the
League of Cambrai (1509-1510) the "Podestà" transferred his headquarters from the
Upper Castle, seriously damaged in the war, to the Lower Castle. Today, this Lower
Castle, restored, is used for various cultural activities: there are exhibition hall, the
Hall for the Council (it hosts the Town Council and the most important meetings of a cultural or political nature), the Hall of Honour (it is nowadays used by the town administration to give honour and hospitality during the most important events in the life of the town), exhibition of the chess match costumes. The town walls: the presentday aspect of Marostica, as a walled town, dates back to the Scaligeri. The construction of the walls, with towers at spaced intervals, was begun by Cansignorio on 1 st
March, 1372. The walls enclose the Pausolino hill and the immediate plain below, uniting in this way the two castles. In this harmonious curtain of defence, four gates have been inserted: the Vicentina to the south, the Breganzina to the west, the
Bassanese to the east and the gate of the Upper Castle. In 1934-1935 another opening in the southern face next to the Lower Castle was made, giving the inhabitants of the walled centre easier access to the railway station. The patrol paths built inside the walls enabled the armed men to provide a ready and efficient service of defence.
From 1978, "La Compagnia delle mura", an association of volonteers has tirelessly dedicated itself to an invaluable activity and restoration of the town-walls. The Upper
Castle: in ancient times, the Romans built a fortification on the summit of the
Pausolino hill, which was subsequently used in the Middle Ages. In 1262, the existence of a "tribus spondis" tower on this hill is documented. Cangrande (Scaligeri-
1312 onwards ) had the Upper Castle built on this pre-existing tower, which square in form, had four towers on each side and a large keep in the middle. The castle, which was the seat of the Venetian "Podestà" until the War of Cambrai (1509-1510) was provided, according to what Gio Paolo Matteazzi, in his "handwritten history of
Marostica", has handed down to us. In 1929, because of an earthquake, most of the structures, already deserted for a long time, collapsed and it is now possible to see the surviving parts, altered by recent interventions to adapt them for tourist use. In the hospitable and panoramic Upper Castle, today, there is the famous "Taverna de
Marostega", a famous restaurant. (*21) Fig. 10,11
The Austrian-Italian Forts at Rivoli exist in the Valdagide. The Adige has always been an important central European route, thus encouraging the economic development of the areas it crosses. This position has made it an area precariously balanced between war and peace, constantly traversed by trade, military expeditions and transhumance. The residents of the area have, thus, always been in search of defences; on the river's edge with castles overseeing the commercial convoys and
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inside the amphitheatre with "broli" enclosed within high walls that defended the courtyards and the agricultural settlements from the transit of herds, flocks and armies. In this specific case we have a landscape in which nature and history constitute the background to the military architcture.
Given that simple policies of protecting the territory have failed to initiate processes of recuperation and re-use of the historical heritage and that even the presence of such processes has not been enough to create a valorization of the territory, while traditional planning in which the cultural landscape has never had a role, has only led to a disintegration virtually impossible to halt, the provincial Administration's plan of
Environmental Valorization has been chosen as an experiment of bottom-up programming. The methodological approach to the problem of Rivoli has therefore begun by starting from the context rather than the monuments. However environmental valorization in Italy still remains a virtually unexplored field especially for the graphics which rather than abstract should be comprehensible to everyone. The case of Rivoli represents an exemplary warning in the face of the savage disregard for the great military works of architecture. Even more so today with the changes in geopolitics and the revolution in armaments that have made a large number of military fortifications obsolete, condemning numerous architectural complexes to a state of disregard and disrepair. Despite a declaration of historical and artistic value for most of these complexes, this does not guarantee their conservation since it is an illusion to think that Local Administrations can look after them property without adequate financial backing from the State.
The proposed new uses in the Austrian-Italian Forts in Rivoli are, as following.
-Wohlgemuth Fort: wine museum, spaces for the history of wine and vineyards, their elaboration, wine cellar, rooms for testing and salesrooms; halls for cultural and educational activities.
-Low Battery: theatre, open-air performances, cafè-bar, restaurant.
-Massena Barrack: pensions, alodgings for the visitors of the museum, the theatre, and the other activities, inside the fortified stuctures.
-Custom-house: Centre for the Environmental Education for students, other visitors, guided visits, open-air "library".
-Fort of San Marco (Caprino): museum itself, also for the nature of the region, ciclocross, positions for "belvedere". (*22)
In Portugal, there are many examples of restoration-preservation, reanimation, rehabilitation of fortifications.
The Tower of Belém (16 th century), classified as World Heritage Monument by
UNESCO, it was a fort for the protection of the oceanic port, that was created in the lagoon of the Tagus river, in Lisbon; it was restored as a Museum itself; it offers panoramic views and halls for exhibitions. Fig. 12
The city of Santarèm , on a hill on the north bank of the Tagus river, overlooks the vast Ribatejo plain, of which it is the chief town. Its strategic position has made it scene of several battles since Mohammedan times. It was recaptured from the Moors in 1147 by Alfonso I and later became a royal residence. From this rich past,
Santarèm retains several monuments, mostly Gothic, dotted about the town's attractive old quarter. The "Alcanede" Castle, of Moorish origin, stands on a high knoll. It enlarged in the 12 th century. Within the medieval ramparts there is a 17 th century beautiful, historic manor house, the "Casa da Alcàcova". It has been restored and transformed into a high quality hotel, which offers "warm hospitality, history, fine food and a spectacular view, from the top of the fortified hill", as it is referred to in
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hotel's prospect. In the terrace, infront of the entrance of the manor house, beside the medieval crenellations, there is also a swimming pool. (*23)
Tomar stretches along the banks of the Nabao at the foot of a wooded hill, crowned by a fortified castle. More than eight centuries of history and many artistic treasures can be admired beyond the Santiago Gate and the Knights Templars castle. Here we can get a close up of the walls constructed in 1160 by gualdim Pais, first master of the
Order of the Templars, and the frontice of the Infante Charola- an octagonal tower and temple of Byzantine outline and a replica of the Holy Sepulchre, with a ricky decorated central altar, the real symbol of the order of the Knights emplars, which became the Order of Christ in 1320. It was also D.Joao III, who constructed the greater part of the convent, particularly outstanding being the principal cloister. Christ
Convent in fact became the greatest and most valuable Portuguese renaissance work and has been classified as of worldwide interest by UNESCO. Despite the importance of this monumental complex, the fortified structures stand without any special careness; the outer walls (enclosure) which surround the convent are preserved in quite good conditions; but the upper part of the castle- a kind of acropolis, a keep- stands silent, waiting the archeological and architectural research, a study of conservation and reanimation; this part of the monumental complex is excluded from visiting. (*24) Fig. 13
In the town of Terras Novas , the castle which dominates the city, was constructed in 1374-1376, the period of D.Fernando. The great, disastrous earthquake in 1755 caused many damages in the castle. In 1835, a part of the inner space of it, it was used as cemetery. During the next decades of the 19 th
century, many alterations had been done. In 1960, the castle was listed as a national monument. The conditions of its preservation are just acceptable; it must be done a lot of work for the complete rehabilitation of the castle of Terras Novas. Today it is accessible for the visitors.
(*25) Fig. 14
I am presenting also, some examples of restoration and reanimation- rehabilitation of fortifications in Europe, which won an Europa Nostra Award. (*26)
Koldinghus Castle, Kolding- Denmark, Europa Nostra Diploma- 1993, for the magnificent restoration and imaginative adaptation of one of Denmark's historic castles. Fig. 15
Koldinghus Castle is one of Denmark's most important medieval royal castles.
Building first started in the 13 th
century with north and west wings being added in the
15 th
century. In the middle of the 16 th
century King Christian II rebuilt the castle without the traditional emphasis on fortification, thus creating the first purely civilian royal palace in Denmark. Apart from a south and an east wing, he constructed a chapel, which was already replaced in the early 17 th
century by a magnificent palace church. In the 18 th
century King Frederik IV completely transformed the renaissance
Koldinghus Castle into a baroque palace, which unfortunately burnt down in 1808.
The damage was so severe that rebuilding was not even considered until 1863, when plans were made to convert it into cavalry barracks. However, this never came to fruition due to the outbreak of war. Work did not recommence until 1890, and since that date the Koldinghus Museum and its successive boards of directors have been the driving force behind all restoration plans. Parts of the complex had already been rebuilt when, in 1964 a select Committee appointed by the Ministry of Housing was
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installed to draw up a proposal for the future of Koldinghus Castle, resulting in 1969 in a recommendation to fully restore it.
Work started in 1975 and continued without interruption for eighteen years until the completion of the project in April 1993. The aim of restoration was not to recreate a royal castle but to preserve a ruin that had witnessed more than 700 years of
Denmark's history and was itself a major source of information about the changing appearance and function of the castle. The main concept, therefore, was to alter as little as possible and to leave the ruined walls basically untouched. Due to the fire and the following two hundred years of exposure to the elements, the ruins were in a miserable state. To support the construction of the roof and the floors in the south and east wing a structure of laminated wooden columns to the entire height of the building, had to be erected. They also supported the wooden wall, suspended from the roof, which replaced a large missing segment of the south-west façade.
As a result of the concept chosen, Koldinghus Castle now consists of outstanding architectural spaces, excellent for museum purposes, created by modern architecture whilst still preserving its character as a ruin. Its future has been thus assured and provides a fascinating combination of past and present.
Ezelpoort, Bruges- Belgium, an Europa Nostra Diploma- 1994, for the sensitive restoration and repair of a medieval gatehouse and its 17 th
century additions and the reconstruction of the adjacent bridges. Fig. 16
The Ezelpoort (Donkey Gate) is one of the nine city gates of the second rampart of
Bruges, constructed between 1297 and 1300, when Bruges had become the most important commercial centre of Northwest Europe. This boom brought a considerable increase of the population, and consequently new residential areas came into being outside the old rampart of 1127. Therefore the town needed a new, bigger rampart, consisting of a double ditch with a perimeter of about eight kilometres earthern walls and palisades. A century later the palisades were partly replaced by walls. Nine city gates were also built. One of them was the Ezelpoort, leading to the north and towards the coast.
Over the centuries the city gates gradually lost their military function as bulwarks able to withstand a siege. From the 17 th
century the bastions in front of each gate assumed the defensive function. The gates remained, because they controlled anyone entering or leaving town. At night they were closed, for security reasons as well for the purpose of levying tolls on merchandises. Until 1860 a range of products required municipal excise duty and when this municipal excise was abolished, the city gates lost their purpose and were demolished. In Bruges, however, their monumental value was regognised and four of them were spared, amongst which was the Ezelpoort. The present gate is based on the gate commissioned by the town council and was constructed in 1369-1370 by master builder Jan Slabbaerd. The building was later changed. At the beginning of the 17 th
century, when the gate had lost its function as a defensive bulwark the upper part of both towers was demolished and replaced by octagonal roofs. A floor was built over the passage way with a clock tower and a fronton. A gatekeeper's house was built on the town side of the gate.
By the end of the 19 th
century the gate was in a rather bad condition. Plan were prepared for its restoration to a presumed medieval condition, entirely in the tradition of Viollet le Duc. It resulted in violent controversy between proponents and opponents of the project, which in the end was not carried out. Thus the gate retained its historical condition, but it also decayed further. In the beginning of 1980's a new
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restoration plan was drawn up and approved, though administrative problems prevented its execution. In 1991 the restoration of the building, now seriously delapidated, finally commenced, following the initiative of the National Bank, which has its headquarters nearby. The walls were consolidated and partly rebuilt. The roofs were renewed. Both bridges were reconstructed and the gatekeeper's house was completely rebuilt.
Fortress Fort VI, Komàrno, Slovakia- Europa Nostra Diploma (1994), for the repair of an important part of this major European fortress and the sensitive conversion for use for cultural functions. Fig. 17
Built of an army of 200.000 soldiers, the fortification system of Komàrno was the largest and strongest fortified building of the Austrian- Hungarian Empire. The "old" fortress, built in the 16 th
century on a strategic spot near the confluence of the Danube and the Vàh, was a rebuilding of a medieval castle desugned by Italian architects.
King Ferdinand I ordered its conversion to make it capable of withstanding Turkish invasions. For the same reason a second "new" fortress was added in the 17 th
century.
During the Napoleonic wars the fortifications were again enlarged and transformed at the beginning of the 19 th
century. Large ramparts and redouts were built west of the existing fortresses and an extensive system of bastion kines was created with six fortresses, connected by ramparts and moats. Fort VI, built of limestone and brick, was the main defensive bastion, consisting of two roundels, a central commander's building and courtyards. Altough part of the bastions lines, it was able to function independently should the enemy break the defence elsewhere in the fortification system.
The fortress had not been used for military purposes since the 1940s. Adaptations for appropriate uses affected its structure and partially destroyed it. A restoration plan was made, aiming at a renovation of the complex reflecting its original form and spirit, whilst adapting it for new use which suited its artistic, architectural and historical values. Later additions were removed, architectural elements such as windows, entrances and loopholes were reinstated in their original positions, destroyed parts were reconstructed and modern facilities and technical equipment installed. New importance was given to the complex by converting it into a social and cultural center, including a billiard hall, disco, restaurant and wine bar as well as the lapidarium of the Danube Museum for history and archeology.
Koppelpoort, Amersfoort, The Netherlands - Europa Nostra Medal (1998), for the splendid restoration of this impressive city landmark, as an extraordinary example of good maintenance philosophy, retaining all possible original material, such as bricks, medieval woodwork and even the vegetation, and by using this restoration as the starting point of a maintenance programme, which will stretch over the years. Fig. 18
The Koppelpoort in Amersfoort, a combination of a water and a land gate,, was built around 1400 as part of a plan to enlarge the town's municipal territory by constructing a completely new city wall. The gate was not conceived in its present form, but was the result of a long process of building, adapting, enlarging and changing. The oldest part was the watergate that already existed when the city wall was connected with it on both sides in the form of a passage on arches. The landgate was constructed later, when the Eem harbour, just outside the walls, rose to importance and had to be accessible by road. Although the most important function
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of the Koppelpoort was the defence of the city, it was also used to provide housing accommodation for gatekeepers and meeting facilities for local guilds, such as the guild of porters and the guild of ferrymen. In the 19 th century the Koppelpoort was threatened with demolition like so many other town fortifications. A national protest campaign was launched in 1860 and resaulted in a change of plan, thanks to which the gate was restored in 1885, one of the earliest such projects in the Netherlands.
Due to major structural problems further extensive restoration had to be carried out in 1996 and 1997. The main basic principle was to preserve the "patina" of this medieval defence structure, preserving its picturesque quality by avoiding over zealous restoration into a "new and clean" appearance. The original material was therefore kept in place wherever possible and only strictly necessary repairs were carried out.
The restoration started with work at water level beneath the gate. Parts of the original walls had been washed away, collapsed or were in a very bad condition.
They were meticulously repaired and the eroded brickwork was supplemented with a combination of trass and lime. Simultaneously archeological research was carried out, during which an oak floor was discovered, made of very broad planks and probably part of the original foundation of the gate. Utmost care was given to the repair of the masonry of the outer walls above water level, which had been damaged by frost. A
"gentle approach" was chosen: only strictly necessary elements were replaced, preferably with original material, and the use of cement mortar was avoided. This approach also ensure that the rare, protected flora growing on the gate could be preserved under the supervision of the town-ecologist. In some places a full-scale operation could not be avoided. The barrel vaulting of the land gate had to be renewed entirely, and the upper deck of the passage had to be removed to allow rebuilding of the vault according to traditional methods, with bricks supported on a wooden centring. The slate roof was also totally renewed.
The original mechanical hoisting device had survived intact. This consisted of two large tread wheels five metres in diameter, a spindle ten metres long, the partitioning and a chair, which supported the entire structure. At nightfall and in times of danger the patitioning was lowered by two persons, each walking inside a wheel. Almost everything was still in its original state. After restoration the wooden partitioning and tread wheels can again be set in motion, thus closing the water gate. The splendid restoration of this impressive city landmark was not only remarkable for its very sensitive ecological approach, but also formed as the starting point of an entire maintenance programme, which will go on in the foreseeable future.
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NOTES
(*1). My participation in the FORTMED - Programme, it is referred to "compiling principles and previous experience for revitalization and proper use of medieval fortifications in accordance with the international charters or agreements". In this frame, I am presenting some characteristic results of the activity of the Scientific
Council of EUROPA NOSTRA - IBI [its members' scientific research], through the publication of their papers in BULLETIN , papers of SC's annual Meetings: from the theoretical point of view about Castellology, the scientific research and documentation, terminology of military architecture (medieval), legislation, proposals for new uses in fortifications, technical approaches for the studies concerned castles, and so on.
Every Meeting of the SC-IBI had, and still has, a subject; through their titles we can understand the scientific approach and the effort to achieve IBI's aims. We are referring to some examples :
"Restoration and researches. Techniques of restoration and preservation.Techniques of documentation and classification of Archives". 8-9 September 1960, Rapperswill.
BULLETIN No 14, 1961.
"Inventory of castles". 25-26 May 1963, Turin. BULLETIN No 20, 1965-66.
"The reanimation- revitalization of castles, isolated in the country". 9-11 October
1965, Vienna. BULLETIN No 22, 1966.
"Legislation concerned castles". 25-28 October 1966, Barcelona. BULLETIN No 23,
1967.
"The fortifications in the Mediterranean Bacin, from the Antiquity until the Middle
Ages". 25-29 April 1968, Athens. Special publication from Technical Chamber of
Greece, 1970.
"The Charter of Venice and the restoration of Castles". 21-27 September 1969,Viseu.
BULLETIN No 25/26, 1969.
"The policy of cultural entertaiment and the touristic promotion of the fortifications".
10-15 September 1973, Paris. BULLETIN No 31, 1974.
"The defence of the medieval routes in Europe". 8-11 October 1982, Turin.
BULLETIN No 41, 1983.
"The use of castle-networks in Medieval defence strategies". 16-19 September 1991,
Wales. BULLETIN No 47, 1991.
"Western defence strategies in the Mediterranean from the Crusade to the siege of
Vienna". 10-16 October 1992, Cyprus. BULLETIN No 48, 1992.
"Military Architecture: Restoration, reutilization or revitalization". 9-12 October
1998, Santarem- Portugal. [unpublished yet].
(*2).G. PERBELLINI, Conclusion in the Compendium of the IBI-Bulletin,
BULLETIN No 52, 2000, p. 74-75.
(*3). L. SAABY, Conservation of fortifications in a modern society. A peaceful challence, BULLETIN No 51, 1999, p. 54-55.
(*4). G. PERBELLINI, The use of castle networks in northern Italian medieval defence strategies, BULLETIN No 47, 1990-91, p. 67.
(*5). L. VILLENA, The Iberian strategical castle, BULLETIN No 47, 1990-91, p. 60.
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(*6). J. TAYLOR, The rehabilitation of castles in country districts in England and
Wales, BULLETIN No 22, 1966, p. 71-74.
(*7). L. VILLENA, Preservation and reanimation of the castles in Spain, BULLETIN
No 22, 1966, p. 81-86.
(*8). P. GAZZOLA, Compte rendou de la IX-ème Reunion Scientifique de l' IBI,
BULLETIN No 25/26, 1969, p. 180-186.
(*9). BULLETIN No 31, 1974,
(*10). L.GERÖ,
How to pursue and develop Hungarian cultural and touristic policy with special regards to castles, BULLETIN No 31, 1974, p. 38-44.
(*11). G. PERBELLINI, The relationship between conservation and creativity, " The power of example- 20 years of Europa Nostra Awards", Den Haag, 1999, p. 63-64.
(*12). NIELS UL. BUGGE, Kastellet, development and conservation, BULLETIN No
51, 1999, p. 36-43.
(*13). L. SAABY, Conservation of fortifications in a modern society. A peaceful challence, BULLETIN No 51, 1999, p. 54-56.
(*14). L. SAABY, Conservation in a changing world. Exemplified by the possible rehabilitation of the Kronborg Castle fortifications, BULLETIN No 48, 1992, p. 93-
96.
(*15). AN. KADLUCZKA, Castles, palaces, and fortresses in Poland. A review of the up-to-date research and project problems in the context of the present-day use,
BULLETIN No 46, 1988-89, p. 103-110.
(*16). DIET. WILDEMAN, Upkeep and appropriate use of historical buildings such as fortifications, castles, palaces, and country's estates in the Republic of Germany
Federal, BULLETIN No 46, 1988-89, p. 123-125.
(*17). HELSINKI CITY TOURIST OFFICE - GOVERNING BODY OF
SUOMENLINNA - UPM, Suomenlinna- Helsinki, an information brochure, 1996.
(*18). TOMAS DURDIK, Selected medieval castles of central Bohemia: Prague
Castle- Zebràk- Tocnik- Krivoklat- Karlstejn, Prague 2000.
Idem, Krivoklat Castle, 1997.
(*19). EKAT. ARISTIDOU, Kolossi Castle through the centuries, Nicosia 1983.
(*20). BARB. MENEGHETTI SAMMARTINI, The walled towns of Asolo,
Castelfranco, Cittadella, Marostica and the Castle of Montegalda, EUROPA
NOSTRA- BULLETIN No 53, 2000, p. 89- 98 ; COMUNE DI ASOLO [ Provincia di
Treviso], brochure of turistic information.
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(*21). BARB. MENEGHETTI SAMMARTINI, The walled towns of Asolo,
Castelfranco, Cittadella, Marostica and the Castle of Montegalda, EUROPA
NOSTRA- BULLETIN No 53, 2000, p. 89-98; GIUS. ANTONIO MURARO,
Marostica. History, landscape, customs, Guide, Marostica 1995.
(*22). G. PERBELLINI, I Forti di Rivoli e la valorizzazione delle opere di
Architetura Militare, CASTELLUM No 42, Roma 2000, p. 17-32.
(*23). SANTAREM, Regiao de Turismo do Ribatejo, Portugal 1987.
(*24). TOMAR, Regiao de Turismo dos Templàrios, Portugal.
(*25). TORRES NOVAS, Regiao de Turismo dos Templàrios, Portugal.
(*26). EUROPA NOSTRA AWARDS, The power of example. 20 years of Europa
Nostra Awards. Den Haag 1999, pp. 132, 148(287), 150-151, 236-237(293).
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FIGURES
Fig.1 Kastellet Fortress, Kopenhagen – Denmark
Fig. 2 Kastellet Fortress, Kopenhagen - Denmark
Fig. 3 Kronborg Castle, Elsinore – Denmark
Fig. 4 Kronborg Castle, Elsinore - Denmark
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Fig. 5 The Barbican, Warsaw – Poland
Fig. 6 Suomenlinna Fortress, Helsinki - Finland
Fig. 7 Krivoklat Castle, Czech Republic
Fig. 8 Karlstejn Castle, Czech Republic
21

Fig. 9 Kolossi Castle, near Limassol – Cyprus
Fig.10 The Lower Castle, Marostica - Italy
Fig.11 The Upper Castle, Marostica – Italy
Fig.12 The Tower of Belèm, Lisbon – Portugal
22

Fig.13 The monastery of Christ and the Castle of
Knights Templars, Tomar – Portugal
Fig.14 Terras Novas Castle – Portugal
Fig.15 Koldinghus Castle, Kolding – Denmark
Fig.16 Ezelpoort, Bruges - Belgium
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Fig.17 Fortress Fort VI, Komàrno - Slovakia
Fig.18 Koppelpoort, Amersfoort - The
Netherlands
24