EXERCISE PRESCRIPTION FOR THE SOCCER MIDFIELDER
By
Jennifer L. Doherty
(Soccer Midfielder)
December 3, 2002
ESS 620 The Scientific Basis of Training Prescription
Fall Semester 2002
jdoherty@miami.edu
Introduction
The purpose of this project is to analyze the sport of soccer with regard to the
midfielder position. A general understanding of the sport of soccer, specifically the
midfielder position, is required to conduct a meaningful and appropriate analysis. The
following components will be examined and the information obtained will be used to
develop a training program specifically for the midfielder position: bioenergetic specificity,
biomechanical specificity, physiological testing battery, and training prescription.
The typical pattern of play for male soccer players has been reviewed. 54 Male soccer
players typically cover a distance of 8 to 12 km in a game.45, 54 The type of work performed
by male soccer players is mainly aerobic consisting of the following: 24% walking, 35%
jogging, 20% running (cruising), 7% backward running, 11% sprinting, and 2% of the time
with the ball.51 In terms of time, these percentages result in a ratio 7 to 1 of aerobic to
anaerobic work45 and a ratio of low-intensity to high-intensity work of approximately 2.2 to
1,51 which denotes a predominance of aerobic work.45, 51 Soccer players must be able to
perform and sustain the typical pattern of play required of the game to be successful.
The anatomy and physiology of successful male soccer players has been
determined. Successful male soccer players are between the ages of 24 to 27 years of
age.54 The typical height of successful male soccer players is 1.83 m; however, midfielders
are usually shorter.5, 11 A body mass of approximately 75 to 80 kg with less than 10% body
fat is typically seen in successful male soccer players.5, 11 Successful male soccer players
usually have a maximal oxygen intake (VO2max) of 60 to 70 ml/(kg)(min)1, 4, 19 and an
anaerobic threshold of approximately 45 ml/kg.20 The average anaerobic power for
successful male soccer players is approximately 27 W/kg.9, 48 The development of muscular
strength in the trunk,59 hip flexors,16, 41 and the knee extensors and flexors10, 16 also is evident
in successful male soccer players.
A successful male soccer player must master the technical and tactical skills of the
game. A midfielder must be able to perform a variety of technical soccer skills, including
but not limited to, dribbling, passing (serving) long range and short range, heading, and
tackling.31 The tactical skills of a midfielder includes the ability to offer support to the play
on both offense and defense, which involves communicating with the attackers and the
defenders,56 the ability to penetrate offensively with the ball by incorporating technical skills
to create scoring opportunities,31, 56 and the ability to read the field for open space and
penetrate without the ball both offensively and defensively.31, 56 A successful male soccer
player not only possesses the anatomical and physiological characteristics that lend to
success but also possesses the technical and tactical skills required of the game to create
successful results on the field.
The athlete and position evaluated for this project is the soccer midfielder. This
athlete is a male who has been playing soccer since childhood and is now a world-class
soccer midfielder. Because this athlete competes on the world-class level, he most likely
possesses the technical and tactical skills required of the game. In terms of the anatomical
and physiological characteristics, this soccer midfielder is 28 years or age, is 1.8 m in
height, and weighs approximately 77 kg, which are within the typical age, height, and
weight ranges of successful male soccer players.5, 11, 54 However, no information pertaining to
his VO2max, his anaerobic threshold, his anaerobic power, or his muscular strength is
known. All of these physiological factors may influence his performance; therefore, these
physiological factors should be evaluated and trained to improve the likelihood of success
on the field.
Bioenergetic Specificity
Success in soccer requires cardiovascular fitness; therefore, the bioenergetic
pathways utilized by a soccer player should be examined. Soccer is an activity that is on
an aerobic/anaerobic continuum over the course of 90 minutes with the players’
physiological state moving from aerobic to anaerobic and back to aerobic metabolism
while active recovery takes place.24, 32, 58 The soccer midfielder utilizes three energy systems:
creatine phosphate, anaerobic glycolysis, and aerobic glycolysis.22, 32, 58 The intensity and
duration of the work/recovery cycles that occur throughout a soccer game determine the
degree to which the energy systems are used.32, 58
The proportion of utilization of the creatine phosphate energy system is greatest
during short-term high-intensity exercise of less than 5 s in duration.15, 22, 58 This energy
system is utilized most by a soccer player while kicking the ball or heading the ball.24, 32 The
proportion of utilization of anaerobic glycolysis progressively increases during short-term
high-intensity exercise and predominates in activities of less than 60 s in duration. 15, 22 This
energy system would be utilized most by a soccer player while sprinting 30 yards onto a
pass.22, 24, 32, 58
The proportion of utilization of the aerobic energy system increases during
prolonged submaximal exercise.15 This energy system is utilized by soccer players while
walking or jogging during the course of a 90-minute game.24, 32, 58 Submaximal exercise
during a soccer game provides an active recovery period, which reduces post-exercise
oxygen consumption and lactic acid levels produced by anaerobic glycolysis, allowing the
soccer player to reengage in high-intensity work.58
As mentioned previously, the work performed by male soccer players is
predominately aerobic. Midfielders cover the greatest distances compared to other soccer
positions; therefore, their aerobic demands are greater.22, 45, 46 A soccer midfielder requires
efficiency of all three energy systems utilized, the creatine phosphate system, anaerobic
glycolysis, and aerobic glycolysis; however, greater emphasis on aerobic metabolism is
warranted.
Biomechanical Specificity
Because success in soccer requires the execution of a variety of technical skills,
these skills should be analyzed from a biomechanical aspect. A biomechanical analysis
reveals the important components of the technical skill that may be trained to potentially
enhance performance. The following biomechanical components should be examined: the
muscle utilization patterns and the types of contractions required to perform the skill, the
joint angles and the muscle lengths required to perform the skill, and the speed of
movement required to perform the skill.
Running
Soccer midfielders cover a large amount of distance in a 90-minute game while
moving along the aerobic/anaerobic continuum24, 32, 58 by running, jogging, and sprinting.51 The
running action may be divided into three phases when conducting a biomechanical
analysis: swing, support, and float.26, 42 The float phase occurs when both feet are out of
contact with the ground.42 The percentage of time spent in the float phase increases as the
speed of running increases.42 Due to the presence of the float phase, running requires
muscular strength to generate the necessary amount of force for movement and balance
to provide coordination of movement.42
The muscle activity may be examined for the swing phase and the support phase of
running. At toe-off, the gluteal and hamstring muscles act to extend the hip and the
gastrocnemius muscle acts to plantarflex the ankle.26, 42 During the swing phase the
iliopsoas muscle acts to flex the hip, the hamstring muscles act to flex the knee, and the
anterior tibialis muscle acts to dorsiflex the ankle to bring the swing leg forward in front of
the support leg while the adductor muscles act to prevent the leg from swinging
outwards.26, 42 At the end of the swing phase, the quadriceps muscle group acts to extend
the knee in preparation for foot-strike, which marks the end of the swing phase of
running.26, 42
Foot-strike marks the beginning of the support phase of running during which time
the weight of the body must be controlled.26 At foot-strike, the hip joint is flexed, the knee
joint is slightly flexed, and the ankle joint is dorsiflexed and slightly inverted. 26 The anterior
tibialis and the gastrocnemius muscles work eccentrically to control the foot as it strikes
the ground.26 The momentum generated while running carries the body forward onto the
support leg and over the ankle joint leading to toe-off.26
Muscles of the trunk and arms also act during running to maintain balance and to
counterbalance the rotation of the pelvis that occurs while moving along the swing phase,
float phase, and support phase continuum.26 Longer strides are taken as the speed of
running increases, which requires greater hip extension and greater knee flexion early in
the swing phase and greater hip flexion later in the swing phase.26 Shorter strides are taken
when the soccer player runs with the ball, which may result in knee flexion at toe-off and
ankle plantarflexion at foot-strike.26
Cometti et al13 conducted a study comparing amateur, sub-elite, and elite soccer
players while sprinting over a distance of 10 m.13 The sprint speeds of the elite and subelite soccer players were significantly greater than the amateur soccer players, indicating a
potential relationship between sprint speed and performance.13
Kicking
Three-dimensional analysis is required to obtain a true biomechanical analysis of
the kicking motion; however, due to the complexity of this motion it is simplified to a twodimensional analysis in the sagittal plane.26, 33 The kicking motion may be divided into four
phases: 1) swing limb loading, 2) flexion of the hip, 3) deceleration of the thigh and
acceleration of the low leg, and 4) follow through.6, 26
During phase one, the swing limb loading phase, the following actions occur in the
kicking leg: the hip joint is extended quickly by the gluteal muscles, the pelvis rotates
posteriorly, the knee joint if flexed by the hamstring muscles, and the ankle joint is
dorsiflexed by the tibialis anterior muscle.26, 33 In this position, the hip flexors, adductors, and
quadriceps muscle groups are eccentrically stretched allowing for the storage of potential
elastic energy in preparation for phase two of the kicking motion.6, 14, 26
The following actions occur in phase two of the kicking motion: the iliopsoas muscle
forcefully contracts to flex the hip joint and the pelvis rotates anteriorly while the knee
remains flexed.6, 26, 33 This phase results in acceleration of the thigh as it swings forward. 6, 14
In phase three of the kicking motion, the thigh begins to decelerate and the low leg
begins to accelerate due to a shift in momentum.6, 33 The hamstrings contract eccentrically
to decelerate the thigh.26 The quadriceps generate momentum by shifting from the
eccentrically stretched position noted in phase two to a forceful concentric contraction to
extend the knee, which results in acceleration of the low leg.6, 14, 26, 33 This pre-stretch of the
quadriceps muscle from phase two increases the speed of the kicking leg by
approximately 21%.7, 28
The fourth phase of the kicking motion, the follow through, serves as a protective
mechanism for the muscles in the swing limb as the momentum generated during the
kicking motion is dissipated.6 The hamstring muscle group is eccentrically stretched in the
follow through phase, thus opposing the hip flexion and knee extension motions that
occurred in phase three of the kicking motion.16
The muscles in the non-kicking leg function to provide stabilization of the body while
the kicking leg is in motion.26 Muscles of the trunk and arms also act during the kicking
motion to maintain balance and to counterbalance the kicking leg.26
The ratio of ball speed to foot speed provides an indication of the level of skill in
kicking the ball with a greater value indicating a higher level of skill.2 Amateur male soccer
players generally exhibit foot speeds in the range of 16 to 22 m/s with a resultant ball
speed in the range of 24 to 30 m/s.2 Professional male soccer players; however, have
exhibited foot speeds of approximately 28.3 m/s with a resultant ball speed of
approximately 29.9 m/s.2 The muscles utilized in the kicking motion are directly responsible
for increasing foot speed as reported by several researchers in the literature, thus
providing evidence of the relationship between muscle strength in the hip flexors, knee
flexors, and knee extensors and the performance of the soccer kick. 10, 13, 16, 41
Jumping and Heading
Jumping and heading are important technical skills in soccer for advancing the ball
down the field, intercepting a pass, or as a shot on goal.35 There are three types of
approaches to heading: 1) from a standing position, 2) when jumping from a standing
position and 3) when jumping with an approach.26, 35
In a game situation, very few headers are performed from the standing position.35
Headers are usually performed while jumping from a standing position or from an
approach.26, 35 A standing jump usually occurs from both feet whereas a jump with an
approach occurs from one foot.26 While performing a header with a jump, the soccer player
will move into a position of trunk flexion, hip flexion, knee flexion, and ankle dorsiflexion as
a result of body weight and gravity.26 Control of this movement is accomplished through
eccentric stretching of the erector spinae, gluteal, hamstring, quadriceps, and plantarflexor
muscle groups.26 The stretched position of these muscle groups results in the storage of
potential elastic energy.26 Flexion of the elbow joints and extension of the shoulder joints
also are noted in this position.26
The jumping motion occurs with quick and forceful concentric contractions of the
erector spinae, gluteal, hamstring, quadriceps, and plantarflexor muscle groups to produce
trunk extension, hip extension, knee extension, and plantarflexion, respectfully.26, 35 Also,
quick concentric contractions of the elbow extensors and shoulder flexors cause the arms
to swing forward and upward into a position of elbow extension and shoulder flexion. 26, 35
The segmental contributions giving rise to the center of gravity necessary to perform the
jumping skill are as follows: knee extension contributes 55%, ankle plantarflexion
contributes 25%, trunk extension contributes 10%, and shoulder flexion and elbow
extension contributes 10%.36 When landing from a jump the erector spinae, gluteal,
hamstring, quadriceps, and plantarflexor muscle groups act eccentrically to control joint
motion, to decelerate the motion, and to absorb the forces of impact with the ground. 26
Throw-In
The muscle utilization patterns of a soccer player while performing a throw-in have
been examined. Throw-ins are performed with both hands on the ball and with both feet on
the ground from either a standing position or from a short running approach. 26 At the
initiation of the throw-in motion, the erector spinae muscle group extends the spine, the
gluteal and hamstring muscle groups contract to extend the hip joints, and the dorsiflexor
muscles act eccentrically to plantarflex the ankle joints.26 The ball is moved overhead
placing the shoulder and elbow joints in full flexion by contraction of the shoulder flexors
and elbow flexors, respectively.26 This position places the shoulder extensors and elbow
extensors on a stretch, which results in the storage of potential elastic energy. 26 As the
throw-in motion begins, the stretched shoulder extensors and elbow extensors contract
concentrically to cause shoulder extension and elbow extension.26 Also, the abdominal
muscles and the iliopsoas muscle contract to cause flexion of the spine and flexion of hips,
respectively.26
Kollath and Schwirtz29 compared the standing throw-in and the running throw-in. The
height and angle of release were not significantly different; therefore, the difference
observed between the standing throw-in and the running throw-in was attributed to arm
speed.29 The distance achieved using the standing throw-in was 20.9 m with an arm speed
of 14.2 m/s compared to 24.1 m with an arm speed of 15.3 m/s using the running throwin.29 These results indicate a possible relationship between increased arm speed and
enhanced performance of the throw-in soccer skill.
The ability to execute the technical skills of soccer lends to successful soccer
performance. Through a biomechanical analysis, knowledge of the muscle utilization
patterns and the types of contractions required to perform a skill, the joint angles and the
muscle lengths required to perform a skill, and the speed of movement required to perform
a skill is obtained. This knowledge allows for the incorporation of specific training exercises
to elicit the desired training effects in an attempt to enhance performance on the soccer
field.
Testing Battery
Physiological assessment of soccer players allows for the identification of individual
strengths and weaknesses and for the identification of changes in individual fitness levels.44
Physiological assessment is achieved through a battery of fitness tests because a single
fitness test is not capable of providing an accurate profile of the athlete. 21, 44 The testing
battery should be standardized and contain fitness tests that are feasible and reliable. 3, 57, 52
Also, the fitness tests utilized in the physiological assessment of soccer players should be
selected or designed with the context of the sport in mind.3 The following areas are
assessed in the testing battery for male soccer players: anthropometry, anaerobic/power,
aerobic/endurance, muscle strength, and flexibility.3, 44, 52, 54, 57
Anthropometry
Anthropometry is the assessment of body composition, or percentage of body. 44, 57
This is an important consideration for the game of soccer because excess fat mass adds
weight and slows the speed of movement required for successful execution of soccer
skills.44, 57 Skinfolds measurements performed according to the recommendations set forth
by the Laboratory Standards Assistance Scheme are used to estimate the percentage of
body fat in soccer players.43, 44, 57 Skinfold measurements from seven sites are collected to
calculate body fat percentage: the triceps, subscapular, biceps, supraspinale, abdominal,
thigh, and calf.43 Appendix A contains illustrations of the seven skinfold measurements. 43
The body fat percentage of top male soccer players is approximately 10% during the
season,5, 11 but body fat percentage may rise to approximately 19 to 20% during the offseason.47
Anaerobic Performance/Power
Anaerobic performance and power are important for the soccer midfielder in
executing the technical skills of soccer, such as kicking the ball,24,32 jumping and heading,24,32
or sprinting 30 yards onto a pass.22, 24, 32, 58 Measurements of power output in the legs are
commonly used to assess anaerobic performance and power of soccer players. 18, 57 A
popular laboratory test used to assess anaerobic performance and power is the 6-Second
Bicycle Test.18 This test is conducted while the soccer player is cycling, which is not
applicable to the sport.44 The results obtained from the 6-Second Bicycle Test are not
highly correlated with peak power and anaerobic threshold.18
An alternate method of assessing anaerobic performance and power is the vertical
jump test conducted with the countermovement jump, which is more applicable to the
sport.57 The soccer player may complete three attempts and the best score is used to
calculate power output using a standard equation.18, 21, 44 The average anaerobic power of
successful male soccer players is approximately 27 W/kg.9, 48
Aerobic Performance/Endurance
Aerobic performance and endurance are important for the success of the soccer
midfielder because this position covers the greatest distances compared to other soccer
positions; therefore, the aerobic demands are greater.22, 45, 46 The measurement of VO2max is
the most commonly used method for assessing aerobic performance and endurance. 57 A
popular laboratory test used to measure VO2max is treadmill running with expired gas
analysis.57 This laboratory test; however, only requires the soccer player to run in a straight
line, which is not applicable to the sport.57
An alternate method of assessing aerobic performance and endurance is being
used more often because it requires the soccer player to constantly change the direction
and speed of running, which is more applicable to the sport.57 This new method is a field
test called the multistage test. During this test, the soccer player must run back and forth
between two cones set 20 m apart in correspondence with a standardized yet variable
cadence provided by a multistage test cassette tape or CD.18 The score obtained on the
multistage test is used to estimate the VO2max of the soccer player.57 The multistage test is
considered a valid method of indirectly estimating VO2max.44 The VO2max of successful
male soccer players falls into the range of 60 to 70 ml/(kg)(min).1, 4, 19, 44, 57
Muscular Strength
Muscular strength in the trunk, the lower limbs, and the upper limbs is important for
the performance of soccer skills and in maintaining balance while performing these skills,
as described earlier in the biomechanical analysis of soccer skills.44 Isokinetic testing for
the assessment of muscle strength is widely used as a laboratory test in evaluating soccer
players.61 Several isokinetic studies have been conducted on soccer players in an attempt
to correlate lower limb strength with kicking performance.10, 13, 16, 41 The isokinetic testing
method is limited to testing only one muscle group at a time, which is not applicable to the
sport because soccer players are required to use multiple muscle groups to perform the
skills of the game, as explained earlier in the biomechanical analysis of soccer skills.61 The
association between isokinetic testing and athletic performance is questionable and further
research in this area is warranted.61
Isoinertial strength assessment may be more applicable to the sport of soccer
because multiple muscle groups are utilized to perform the strength test. The technical
skills utilized by soccer players incorporate concentric contractions and the use of potential
elastic energy that is stored during an eccentric stretching of a muscle, as described earlier
in the biomechanical analysis of soccer skills. Isoinertial strength assessment incorporates
multiple muscle groups and involves both concentric contraction and eccentric stretching
of these muscles,34 which is more applicable to the sport.
Maximal isoinertial strength is usually determined from a one-repetition maximum
(1RM) test or a three-repetition maximum (3RM) test.34 The 3RM test protocol will be
utilized because it is more reliable, safer, and highly correlated to the 1RM test. 27, 53 The
3RM for this soccer midfielder will be assessed for the squat and bench press to determine
strength of the lower limbs and the upper limbs, respectively.
After warming up, the soccer player will begin the 3RM test. The soccer player has
four attempts with rest periods of 3 to 5 minutes to determine the 3RM.34 The weight is
increased progressively by 5 kg for the squat and by 2.5 kg for the bench press. 34 The final
amount of weight lifted, meeting the satisfactory criteria, for three successive lifts is
recorded as the absolute 3RM.34 Although isoinertial strength testing more closely
simulates the activities involved in the sport of soccer as compared to isokinetic testing,
further research is warranted to examine the potential relationship between isoinertial
strength scores and athletic performance.34
Flexibility
Flexibility is an important consideration for soccer players because of the potential
for enhancing performance and preventing injury.23, 44 Flexibility exercises of the quadriceps
and hamstring muscle groups have been reported to increase the range of motion about
the hip joint, which increases knee extension speed important for kicking,25 increases stride
frequency during sprinting,25 and offers protection against injury.50 Flexibility is capable of
preventing injury by increasing the length of the muscle, which allows for greater force
absorption by the muscle without injury.23 A relationship between muscle tightness in the
hamstring and adductor muscle groups and increased risk of muscle injury has been
reported.17 Flexibility exercises also have been reported to improve the storage of potential
elastic energy by increasing the length of the muscle, thereby more energy can be
transferred to the concentric contraction resulting in greater force production.12, 60 Stored
potential elastic energy plays a role in the performance of soccer skills as described in the
biomechanical analysis of the soccer skills.26
Due to the importance of flexibility, the testing battery for soccer players includes
the assessment of range of motion for the muscle groups utilized in the sport. The flexibility
tests from the standardized F-MARC testing battery for soccer players will be used in
accordance with established testing protocols to assess the trunk muscles, the hip
extensors, the knee flexors, the knee extensors, and the plantarflexors.52 The seven
flexibility tests from the F-MARC testing battery are illustrated in Appendix B.52 The FMARC testing battery for flexibility is appealing because it is a feasible assessment tool;
however, further research is warranted with regard to the reliability of these flexibility
tests.52
A testing battery developed according to the demands of the sport results in
comprehensive physiological assessment of soccer players, which allows for the
identification of individual strengths and weaknesses and for the identification of changes
in individual fitness levels.44 The order in which the testing battery is administered is of
important consideration to minimize the potential of crossover effects among the fitness
tests.
The multistage test for assessing aerobic performance and endurance will be
administered first because multiple soccer players may be assessed simultaneously. The
3RM bench press test for muscular strength of the upper limbs will be administered next,
providing a rest period for the lower limbs. Skinfold assessment and the flexibility tests
may be administered interchangeably following the 3RM bench press test. These fitness
tests provide recovery time from the multistage test and the 3RM bench press test
because they are not physically taxing for the soccer player. The testing battery is
concluded with the vertical jump test and the 3RM squat test, respectively. The vertical
jump test for anaerobic performance and power and the 3RM squat test for muscular
strength in the lower limbs are last in the testing battery due to the potential development
of muscular fatigue. The 3RM squat test is the last test administered because it is more
physically taxing than the vertical jump test due to the external load. The testing battery
should be administered in one day to minimize the disruption of the current training
program of the soccer players.
Modifications to the testing battery or the order in which the fitness tests are
administered may be required if a soccer player is unable to perform a fitness test or
complete the testing battery for any reason. This may occur due to illness, injury, improper
technique, or poor physical fitness. Illness or injury not withstanding, this population of
soccer players is competing on the world-class level and should possess the proper
technique and physical fitness required to perform and complete this testing battery.
The testing battery will be administered during the transition from off-season to preseason. Data gathered at this time establishes a baseline and serves as the foundation for
an individualized training prescription for the season. The testing battery will be
administered a second time during the transition from pre-season to in-season. Data
gathered at this time may be compared to previous data to ensure the efficacy of the
training prescription in maintaining aerobic/endurance, anaerobic/power, strength, and
flexibility levels throughout the season. The testing battery will be administered mid-season
(refer to Table 1) and the data gathered may be compared to previous data to determine if
modifications in the training prescription are necessary to maintain the aerobic/endurance,
anaerobic/power, strength, and flexibility level of the soccer players. During the transition
from in-season to out-of-season, the testing battery will be administered to gather data to
guide the development of an individualized training prescription for the soccer players for
the off-season.
Training Prescription
The data collected during the testing battery are used to develop a training
prescription to improve or maintain the aerobic/endurance, anaerobic/power, strength, and
flexibility level of the soccer player. The goal of the training prescription is to obtain, or
maintain, the attributes of a successful male soccer player as described earlier. 1, 4,5,9,11,16,19,41,48, 59
Aerobic and endurance exercises may be emphasized if a soccer player has
greater than 10% body fat and/or a low VO2max. Interval training is considered one of the
most effective ways for increasing the aerobic fitness level of soccer players.24 Interval
training with a work to rest ratio of 1 to 2 will target the aerobic energy pathways and
enhance endurance.24, 32 Interval training is applicable to the sport of soccer due to the
resultant increase and decrease in heart rate, which occurs throughout the 90-minute
soccer game.24
Pattern running is a type of interval training exercise with established guidelines. 24
The pattern running exercise includes a variety of different runs that are performed
according to a 1:2 work to rest ratio.24 For example, if the soccer player completed a run in
15 seconds, then he has 30 seconds to jog back to the starting position. Pattern running
should be performed for approximately 20 to 40 minutes.24 Pattern running is an effective
interval training approach for soccer players because it involves a variety of movements
that are applicable to the sport.24
Anaerobic exercises incorporating power and strength may be emphasized if a
soccer player demonstrates low anaerobic power and/or muscular weakness. Strength and
power in the muscles of the upper limbs, trunk, and lower limbs are important as described
earlier in the biomechanical analysis of soccer skills. To develop and/or maintain power
and strength in the upper limbs of soccer players, the following exercises are utilized: the
incline/bench press, front lat pull-downs, seated rows, upright rows, medicine ball
overhead throws, and medicine ball chest throws.8 Appendix C contains illustrations of
these exercises.8 To develop and/or maintain power and strength in the trunk muscles of
soccer players, the following exercises are utilized: back extensions, Good morning
exercises, power lifts to chest level, dead lifts, abdominal V-sits, and weighted sit-ups.8
Appendix C contains illustrations of these exercises.8 To develop and/or maintain power
and strength in the lower limbs of soccer players, the following exercises are utilized:
squat, jump half squats, knee lifts, leg curls, drop jumps, and toe raises.8 Appendix C
contains illustrations of these exercises.8 The power and strength exercises incorporated
into the training prescription target the muscles utilized in the performance of soccer skills.
Flexibility exercises may be emphasized if a soccer player demonstrates a
restricted range of motion as assessed by the flexibility tests included in the testing battery.
To develop and/or maintain flexibility in soccer players, the following stretches are utilized:
neck stretch, back stretch, quadriceps stretch, hip flexor stretch, hamstring stretch,
modified hurdler stretch, groin stretch, and lower-leg heel stretch.38 These flexibility
exercises are performed prior to all training sessions. Appendix D contains illustrations of
these flexibility exercises.38
The training prescription is developed to improve or maintain the
aerobic/endurance, anaerobic/power, strength, and flexibility level of the soccer player.
The training prescription must be individualized and refined to address the specific needs
of the soccer player in an attempt to enhance athletic performance . The goal of the training
prescription is to obtain, or maintain, the attributes of a successful male soccer player that
has been reported in scientific literature as described earlier.1, 4, 5, 9, 11, 16, 19, 41,48, 59
Periodization
Periodization is an important component of the training prescription because it
provides variation to the training program.30 This variation reduces the occurrence of
staleness, or a plateau in the training effect, and it reduces the occurrence of overtraining,
or a decrease in exercise performance.30 Periodization also may be applied to the different
cycles of training: the event cycle, the daily cycle, the microcycle, the mesocycle, and the
macrocycle.30
Periodization may be incorporated into the event cycle by using a variety of
exercises. For the aerobic/endurance exercises, selecting different runs provides variation
in the pattern running exercise. Developing two programs for the anaerobic power and
strength exercises also provides variation. Program one includes the incline/bench press,
seated rows, medicine ball overhead throws, back extensions, power lifts to chest level,
abdominal v-sits, the squat, knee lifts, and drop jumps. Program two includes the front lat
pull-downs, upright rows, medicine ball chest throws, Good mornings, dead lifts, weighted
sit-ups, jump half squats, leg curls, and toe raises. Periodization may be accomplished by
alternating between program one and program two by the week (refer to Table 1).
Focusing on different aspects of the training program on different days of the week
provides variation in the daily cycle of training. Soccer players typically perform aerobic
endurance exercises and anaerobic power and strength exercises three times a week.21
Utilizing different pattern runs throughout the week provides variation to this aerobic and
endurance exercise. Focusing on different muscle groups for the three anaerobic power
and strength training sessions provides periodization. In each week, training session one
focuses on the lower limbs, training session two focuses on the upper limbs, and training
session three focuses on the trunk (refer to Table 1).
Periodization of the microcycle, which is typically 2 to 6 weeks,30 is accomplished by
varying the intensity and volume of the weekly training program in accordance with the
game schedule. In weeks with only one game, training at a high intensity with a low
volume may be utilized, which includes 40 minutes of pattern running and performing the
power and strength exercises at an intensity of 80 to 90% of 1RM for 1 to 7 repetitions with
a rest interval of 3 to 5 minutes between sets.8 In weeks with two games, training at a
moderate intensity with a moderate volume may be utilized, which includes 30 minutes of
pattern running and performing power and strength exercises at an intensity of 50 to 80%
of 1RM for 5 to 10 repetitions with a rest interval of 2 to 4 minutes between sets. 8
Training at a low intensity with a high volume may be utilized during the week
preceding a difficult soccer game in an attempt to peak the soccer players. Peaking
involves a time period during which the training state of the soccer players is maximized
resulting in the highest level of performance possible.8 While attempting to peak, pattern
running is conducted for 20 minutes and the power and strength exercises are performed
at an intensity of 30 to 50% of 1RM for 10 to 30 repetitions with a rest interval of 1 to 2
minutes between sets.8
Three to five sets of each exercise are performed according to the desired volume
of work for the soccer player. Research has reported that performing three to five sets of
an exercise produced the most gains.38 Adjustments of the intensity and volume of training
during the microcycle are individualized according to the performance of the soccer player
in the testing battery.
Periodization of the mesocycle occurs in the different training programs utilized
during the off-season and in-season. Mesocycles typically last anywhere from 3 to 4
months.30 Establishing a base of aerobic endurance and developing strength and power
are the training objectives during the off-season. Aerobic endurance may be established
through various types of interval training with a work to rest ratio of 1 to 2.24, 32 Developing
strength and power during the off-season occurs in three phases: hypertrophy phase,
basic strength phase, and strength and power phase.8 The training objectives while inseason include the maintenance or aerobic endurance and anaerobic power and strength
while training the technical and tactical skills of the sport.21
The macrocycle includes the training program over the course of a year.30 This cycle
encompasses the off-season and the in-season. The macrocycle includes the mesocycle,
the microcycle, the daily cycle, and the event cycle, which all include variations in training
as previously described. Therefore, periodization in the macrocycle is evident.
Summary
There are several misconceptions with regard to developing a training prescription
for soccer players. One misconception is that the training prescription for soccer players
simply involves endurance training.58 The need for anaerobic training is overlooked and
results in soccer players that are capable of running for long periods of time at a low
intensity.58 Focusing strictly on endurance training results in soccer players that are
incapable of performing, and recovering from, the multiple high-intensity sprints required of
the game.58 The opposite misconception is that the training prescription for soccer players
simply involves speed training.58 The need for aerobic training is overlooked and results in
early muscle fatigue, thus limiting performance in the 90-minute soccer game.58
Soccer is an activity that is on an aerobic/anaerobic continuum over the course of
90 minutes with the players’ physiological state moving from aerobic to anaerobic and
back to aerobic metabolism while active recovery takes place.24, 32, 58 Soccer midfielders are
continuously moving along the aerobic/anaerobic continuum 24, 32, 58 by running, jogging, and
sprinting.51 Efficiency of all three energy systems utilized, the creatine phosphate system,
anaerobic glycolysis, and aerobic glycolysis is required for a soccer midfielder. Midfielders
cover the greatest distances compared to other soccer positions; therefore, the aerobic
demands are greater.22, 45, 46 In addition to the efficiency of the bioenergetic pathways, the
soccer midfielder must possess muscular strength and flexibility of the trunk,59 hip
flexors,16,41 and knee extensors and flexors,10, 16, 25 to improve the likelihood of successful
performance on the soccer field. Therefore, the training prescription must be individualized
and continuously refined to address the specific needs of the soccer midfielder in an
attempt to enhance athletic performance.
Table 1. Soccer training and competition schedule.
WEEK
Monday
Tuesday
1
Lower #1
H/L, 40 min run
Lower #2
H/L, 40 min run
Lower #1
L/H, 20 min run
Lower #2
M/M, 30 min run
Lower #1
H/L, 40 min run
Upper #1
H/L, 40 min run
Upper #2
H/L, 40 min run
Upper #1
L/H, 20 min run
Upper #2
M/M, 30 min run
Upper #1
H/L, 40 min run
Lower #2
M/M, 30 min run
Upper #1
L/H, 20 min run
Upper #2
H/L, 40 min run
Upper #1
M/M, 30 min run
Upper #2
H/L, 40 min run
Upper #1
M/M, 30 min run
Upper #2
H/L, 40 min run
Upper #1
H/L, 40 min run
Upper #2
L/H, 20 min run
Upper #1
L/H, 20 min run
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Game
rating score = 3
Lower #1
L/H, 20 min run
Lower #2
H/L, 40 min run
Lower #1
M/M, 30 min run
Lower #2
H/L, 40 min run
Lower #1
M/M, 30 min run
Lower #2
H/L, 40 min run
Lower #1
H/L, 40 min run
Lower #2
L/H, 20 min run
Lower #1
L/H, 20 min run
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Trunk #1
H/L, 40 min run
Game
Game
rating score = 3
Game
rating score = 4
Game
rating score = 1
Upper #2
M/M, 30 min run
Game
rating score = 1
TESTING BATTERY
Game
rating score = 1
Game
rating score = 1
Game
rating score = 5
rating score = 4
Trunk #1
L/H, 20 min run
Trunk #2
M/M, 30 min run
Trunk #1
H/L, 40 min run
Trunk #2
M/M, 30 min run
Trunk #1
L/H, 20 min run
Trunk #2
H/L, 40 min run
Trunk #1
M/M, 30 min run
Trunk #2
H/L, 40 min run
Trunk #1
M/M, 30 min run
Trunk #2
H/L, 40 min run
Trunk #1
H/L, 40 min run
Trunk #2
L/H, 20 min run
Trunk #1
L/H, 20 min run
Saturday
Sunday
Game
rating score = 2
Trunk #2
H/L, 40 min run
Game
rating score = 5
Game
rating score = 3
Game
rating score = 2
Game
rating score = 5
Game
rating score = 2
Game
rating score = 1
Game
rating score = 4
Game
rating score = 3
Game
rating score = 4
Game
rating score = 1
Game
rating score = 4
Game
rating score = 2
- Game rating scale: 5 is toughest, 1 is easiest; Lower: lower limb power and strength exercises, Upper: upper limb power and strength exercises, Trunk: trunk power and strength
exercises; #1: exercise program 1, #2: exercise program 2; H/L: high intensity/low volume, M/M: moderate intensity/moderate volume, L/H: low intensity/low volume; run: pattern running
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Appendix A: Skinfold Measurements
Triceps
Biceps
Subscapular
Supraspinale
Thigh
Abdominal
Calf
Appendix B: Flexibility Tests
Leg Raise in Supine Position
Lengthwise Leg Splits
Sideways Bending
Sideways Leg Splits
Single-legged Knee Bend
Bending Backwards
Forward Trunk Bending
Appendix C: Power and Strength Exercises
Upper Limbs
Trunk
Lower Limbs
Appendix D: Flexibility Exercises