Dr. Ruth Ballard
BIO 2
Page 1
Fall 2008
STUDY GUIDE FOR EXAM 3
Use the study questions below to help you study for the final exam. I will be
happy to answer questions by e-mail as long as the required answers are
reasonably short and do not require diagrams. Otherwise, please save your
questions for my office hours on Fridays (9-12).
The exam will cover all topics discussed during lecture and all topics covered in
homework questions pertaining to lecture since Exam 2.
I.
LECTURE 9: REPRODUCTION I: ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION: BINARY FISSION,
MITOSIS, AND THE CELL CYCLE
1.
Why does asexual reproduction give rise to daughter cells that are not always
genetically identical to the parent cell?
2.
Are all living organisms capable of reproducing asexually? Explain.
3.
Why is asexual reproduction referred to as “nature’s way of cloning”?
4.
What is the outcome of asexual reproduction? (The parent cell replicates its DNA and
then divides it how?) How does this differ from sexual reproduction?
5.
What kinds of organisms reproduce asexually by binary fission? What types of
organisms use mitosis?
6.
What types of organisms use mitosis as a way of reproducing the entire organism?
What types of organisms only use it for growth and repair?
7.
What are sister chromatids? Are they identical in DNA sequence? Explain.
8.
What is a centromere?
9.
What was Walter Flemming’s contribution to cell biology?
10.
Into what two major phases can the cell cycle be broken down? In which of these
two phases are chromosomes visible under the light microscope? Why?
11.
What are the three sub-phases of interphase? What happens in each sub-phase?
12.
Be able to draw out a simple diagram of the eukaryotic cell cycle.
13.
Into what 5 sub-phases can mitosis be divided? What is happening in each subphase? Be able to draw out mitosis from beginning to end.
14.
What is the function of the centrosomes? What are spindle fibers and what do they
do during mitosis?
15.
What are kinetochores?
Dr. Ruth Ballard
BIO 2
Page 2
Fall 2008
16.
What happens at the metaphase plate during metaphase of mitosis?
17.
What separate during anaphase of mitosis?
18.
What follows immediately after telophase of mitosis?
19.
What are the two main check-points in the eukaryotic cell cycle? What does the cell
usually do if it fails to pass inspection at these check-points? Why?
20.
Be able to give one example of an external signal that can promote mitosis in a cell.
21.
Be able to give one example of an internal signal that can halt mitosis in a cell.
22.
What is “density-dependent inhibition?” What is “anchorage-dependent inhibition”?
What happens when a cell loses these inhibitions?
23.
Be able to list 5 different ways in which cancer cells differ from normal, healthy cells.
What makes cancer cells so dangerous?
II.
LECTURE 10: REPRODUCTION II: SEXUAL REPRODUCTION AND MEIOSIS
1.
What is heredity?
2.
Do children inherit traits from their parents? If not, what do they actually inherit?
3.
What is the difference between haploid and diploid cells? Can haploid cells undergo
mitosis? How about diploid cells?
4.
What is the purpose of meiosis?
5.
Be able to draw out the life cycles of a typical animal, a typical plant, and a typical
fungus.
6.
Does meiosis immediately precede fertilization in animals? Does meiosis immediately
precede fertilization in fungi? Explain.
7.
What is a sporophyte? What is a gametophyte?
8.
How many chromosomes are there in a human sperm? How about in a human
somatic cell (e.g. a liver or brain cell)?
9.
How many copies of human chromosome 7 are in a normal sperm cell?
10.
How is the sex of a human baby determined?
11.
Know the difference between homologous chromosomes and sister chromatids.
Which are more alike and why?
12.
If your parents are unrelated, how many differences (on average) are there between
the copy of the genome you inherited from your father and the copy you inherited
from your mother? (Note: The haploid human genome contains 3.3 billion bp of
DNA.)
Dr. Ruth Ballard
BIO 2
Page 3
Fall 2008
13.
What is a karyotype? How many chromosomes are in a normal human karyotype,
assuming the the karyotype was produced from fetal cells floating in the amniotic
fluid of a pregnant woman? How about if the cells are from an adult human blood
draw?
14.
What is an autosome? How many different types of autosomes do humans have?
15.
Which is larger, chromosome 16 or chromosome 17?
16.
Which is larger, the human X chromosome or the human Y chromosome? Explain.
17.
What is a primary spermatocyte? How about a primary oocyte?
18.
How many sex chromosomes does a normal human sperm carry?
19.
Be able to draw out meiosis from beginning to end.
20.
Know the differences between meiosis and mitosis.
21.
Understand the three ways in which sexual reproduction creates unique offspring. be
able to explain them in detail.
22.
If an organism has a haploid chromosome number of 13, how many different
gametes can be created due to independent assortment alone (assuming that
crossing over does not take place)?
III.
LECTURE 11: REPRODUCTION III: HEREDITY
1.
What is the difference between the “blending” and “particulate” theories about
heredity? Which is correct? Who was the first scientist to provide strong evidence in
favor of the correct theory?
2.
Be able to state Mendel’s Laws and indicate how they reflect the behavior of
chromosomes and genes during meiosis.
3.
Be able to list some of the advantages of using the garden pea for genetic studies.
4.
What is a true-breeding plant? What is the genetic term we now use for such a
plant?
5.
What is a hybrid plant? What is the genetic term we now use for such a plant?
6.
Be able to draw out Mendel’s experiments. (Both monohybrid and dihybrid.)
7.
In the F2 generation of a dihybrid cross, how many offspring will look just like their
two parents? How many will carry both recessive traits?
8.
Be able to derive Mendel’s 3:1 phenotypic ratio in the F1 of his monohybrid crosses
as well as the 9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio in the F2 of his dihybrid crosses – using
either the multiplication rule (faster) or using a Punnett Square.
9.
How many heritable characteristics did Mendel choose to study in the pea? Be able to
list them and know their two alternative forms.
Dr. Ruth Ballard
BIO 2
Page 4
Fall 2008
10.
What 4 concepts explain the results of Mendel’s dihybrid crosses?
11.
Know the difference between a gene, an allele, and a locus.
12.
Be able to write out Mendel’s First Law (Law of Segregation) in simple language.
13.
Know the difference between a genotype and a phenotype. When is genotype
directly visible in the phenotype?
14.
Be able to use the multiplication and addition rules to solve genetic problems of the
types you were given on homework assignments 11 and 12. Be able to solve
problems using Punnett Squares.
15.
How many different gametes can be produced by the following individual:
AaBBCcDDEeFfGg?
16.
What is incomplete dominance? Be able to solve genetics problems when incomplete
dominance is at work.
17.
What is codominance? Be able to solve genetics problems when incomplete
dominance is at work.
18.
What is multiple allelism? Be able to give at least one “real life” example.
19.
What is pleiotropy? What is a multigenic trait? How do these two terms relate to one
another?
20.
What is epistasis. Be able to give an example and work problems where epistasis is
at work.
21.
What is the “norm of reaction” for a trait under the influence of the environment? Be
able to give an example.
22.
What is a multifactoral trait? How does it differ from a multigenic trait – or are they
the same thing?
23.
Why are humans typically not good model organisms for genetics experiments?
24.
Be able to draw out human pedigrees using the simple rules provided in your lecture
notes. (Males are squares, females are circles, etc.)
25.
Why is it not a good idea to marry your first cousin?
26.
Be able to give an example of one autosomal recessive and one autosomal dominant
human disease and list their symptoms.
III.
LECTURE 12: FIGHTING ENTROPY I: AN INTRODUCTION TO METABOLISM
1.
Be able to define the term metabolism.
2.
What is the difference between a catabolic and anabolic metabolic pathway?
Dr. Ruth Ballard
BIO 2
Page 5
Fall 2008
3.
What is bioenergetics?
4.
Be able to define kinetic energy and potential energy. Which category does heat fall
into? Which category does light fall into? Which category do the chemical bonds in a
sugar molecule fall into? How about a rock at the top of a hill?
5.
What is thermodynamics the study of?
6.
What is the difference between a closed and open thermodynamic system? Which is
life? (Be able to explain your answer – this is VERY important!)
7.
Be able to state and explain the first two laws of thermodynamics. Does life violate
either of these laws? Explain.
8.
What is a spontaneous process (in thermodynamics)?
9.
Where does the ecosystem “suck” its energy from?
10.
Be able to define Gibbs Free Energy (G).
11.
Know the equation that defines ∆G. What is ∆H? What is ∆S?
12.
How can chemists predict whether a chemical reaction will be spontaneous?
13.
What is chemical equilibrium? Is this a high energy state or a low energy state?
Explain.
14.
Be able to define the terms exergonic and endergonic. Which one pertains to
respiration? Which to photosynthesis? Which to translation?
15.
Explain how ATP couples endergonic and exergonic reactions in the cell.
16.
Be able to draw out an ATP molecule and show how the chemical energy in its
phosphate bonds is released to do work in the cell. (Be able to define work in
thermodynamic terms.)’
17.
What is a catalyst? What is an enzyme? What’s the difference?
18.
What is a transition state (in thermodynamics)?
19.
Be able to define substrate, active site, enzyme-substrate complex, activation
energy, and induced fit.
20.
Be able to list four different in ways in which enzymes can lower EA.
21.
What physiological/environmental factors can affect an enzyme’s function?
22.
What are cofactors and coenzymes? What’s the difference?
IV.
LECTURE 13: FIGHTING ENTROPY II: RESPIRATION
1.
Be able to define respiration (using simple words as well as in chemical equations).
Dr. Ruth Ballard
BIO 2
Page 6
Fall 2008
2.
What is the difference between anaerobic and aerobic respiration? (Again, be able to
use words as well as equations.) Which produces more ATP from a glucose molecule?
3.
What three types of work do cells perform?
4.
What types of molecules can organisms oxidize to produce ATP?
5.
Be able to define oxidation and reduction. Is starch a highly oxidized or highly
reduced form of carbon dioxide and water?
6.
What occurs during glycolysis (be able to write out the chemical reaction)? Where
does this process occur? What is another name for this process? How many ATP
(net) are produced? In aerobic organisms, what happens to the NADH/FADH2 and
pyruvate that are produced during glycolysis?
7.
What is the citric acid (Krebs) cycle? Where does it take place? What gas is produced
in this cycle? How many ATP, NADH, and FADH2 are produced per “spin” of the cycle
(per glucose)? How many NADH are produced during the conversion of pyruvate to
acetyl-coA? Overall, how many of each type of molecule are produced per molecule
of glucose?
8.
What happens to the ATP that is produced in the citric acid cycle? How about the
NADH/FADH2?
9.
What is oxidative phosphorylation? Where does it take place? Be able to draw a
diagram showing how this process generates ATP from ADP + Pi.
10.
Why do we breathe oxygen gas? What does this gas get converted to in the cell?
11.
What is ATP synthase? Be able to define chemiosmosis and proton motive force.
12.
About how efficient is aerobic respiration? (What percent of the potential chemical
energy in glucose is converted to the chemical energy in ATP in the process?)
13.
Understand the last slide in this lecture – i.e. how photosynthesis and aerobic
respiration are linked in the ecosystem.
14.
What types of organisms undergo aerobic respiration? Do plants undergo this
process? Why or why not?
V.
LECTURE 14: FIGHTING ENTROPY III: PHOTOSYNTHESIS
1.
What is an autotroph? What is a photoautotroph?
2.
Do photoautotrophs exist in all of life’s 5 domains? Explain.
3.
What are heteroautotrophs? Be able to give some examples of living organisms that
fall into this category.
4.
What gives plants their green color?
5.
During photosynthesis, what gas is consumed? What gas is produced?
Dr. Ruth Ballard
BIO 2
Page 7
Fall 2008
6.
What are stomata and why are they important for photosynthesis?
7.
Be able to define mesophyll, thylakoid, grana, and stroma.
8.
Be able to draw and label and simple diagram of a chloroplast.
9.
What evidence suggests and mitochondria and chloroplasts were once dree-living
bacteria that are now endosymbionts in eukaryotic cells?
10.
What molecule gets reduced during photosynthesis? What molecule gets oxidized? Is
this overall redox reaction endergonic or exergonic? Explain.
11.
What does the “photo” in photosynthesis stand for? How about the “synthesis”?
12.
What main events happen in the light reactions? What main events happen in the
light-independent reactions? Where does each process take place?
13.
Be able to draw out a diagram showing the relationships between the light and lightindependent reactions (Slide 15).
14.
What is light? How are the energy level and wavelength of light related?
15.
What wavelength range comprises the visible spectrum of light?
16.
What is a photon?
17.
What is chlorophyll a? What is its function in photosynthesis? What about chlorophyll
b?
18.
What happens when you shine visible light on an isolated solution of chlorophyll a?
19.
What are the two parts of a photosystem and what is the role of each?
20.
How many photosystems to chloroplasts have and where are they located? What is
each called and what wavelength of light does each absorb? What color of light is
this?
21.
What happens in the first step of photosynthesis? Which photosystem is involved?
What happens to water? What gas is produced and why? What happens to an
electron in a chlorophyll a molecule as a result of being excited by a photon?
22.
What begins to build up in the inner thylakoid space as a result of the splitting of
water?
23.
What is the other source of the build-up of this substance in the inner thylakoid
space? How does this build-up drive the synthesis of ATP?
24.
Is water split at Photosystem I? Explain.
25.
What does the PI electron transport chain produce?
Dr. Ruth Ballard
BIO 2
Page 8
Fall 2008
26.
How are the ATP molecules and NADPH molecules produced in the light reactions
used by the cell?
27.
What is the Calvin Cycle? What gas does it consume? What does it produce that is
useful to the cell?