1.02 Historical and Technological Developments
Analyze the following structures in three areas:
1. The influence of their technology on history
2. Understanding of the attributes of their design
3. Processes, procedures, and design constraints of the time.
 Prehistoric- Stonehenge
 Sumeria- ziggurat, cities, irrigation systems
 Egypt- pyramids, cliff tombs. temples, cities.
 Greece- Parthenon, Acropolis, amphitheaters, cities
Rome- aqueducts, viaducts, baths, Coliseums, roads
China- Buddhist temples, gardens, homes, Great Wall
Japan- pagodas, temples, gardens, homes
Islam- Hagia Shopia, mosques, minarets
India- Taj mahal, rock cut temples
Pre- Columbian- Aztec, Maya, Inca
Medieval Europe- castles, cathedrals, hill towns, wall towns
Renaissance Europe- St. Peter’s cathedral, Leaning tower of Pisa
Modern Europe- Bauhaus style, Eiffel Tower, Euro tunnel,
Millenium dome
Early U.S.- native American dwellings, pioneer homes, Colonial
architecture
Contemporary U.S.- Empire State Building, Astrodome, St. Louis
Arch, Capital building
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Prehistoric- Stonehenge
The megalithic ruin known as Stonehenge stands
on the open downland of Salisbury Plain two miles (three
kilometers) west of the town of Amesbury, Wiltshire, in
Southern England. The Sarsen Circle, about 108 feet (33 meters) in
diameter, was originally comprised of 30 neatly trimmed upright sandstone
blocks of which only 17 are now standing. The stones are evenly spaced
approximately 1.0 to 1.4 metres apart, and stand on average 13 feet (4
meters) above the ground. They are about 6.5 feet (2 meters) wide and 3
1.02 Historical and Technological Developments
feet (1 meter) thick and taper towards the top. They originally supported
sarsen lintels forming a continuous circle around the top. Each lintel block
has been shaped to the curve of the circle. The average length of the
rectangular lintels is 3.2 metres (10' 6"). The lintels were fitted end-to end
using tongue-and-groove joints, and fitted on top of the standing sarsen with
mortise and tenon joints. The Sarsen Circle with its lintels is perhaps the
most remarkable feature of Stonehenge in terms of design, precision
stonework, and engineering.
Sumeria- ziggurat, cities, irrigation systems
All of the Sumerian cities were built beside rivers, either on the Tigris
or Euphrates or on one of their tributaries. The city rose, inside its brown
brick walls, amid well-watered gardens and pastures won from the swamps.
In all directions, the high levees of the irrigation canals led to grain and
vegetable fields. The most elaborate of the Sumerian buildings was the
temple or ziggurat. Normally a huge platform or terrace was first
constructed, upon which the temple could be built; but in later times, as the
terraces grew to be like artificial mountains, they were built in huge steps or
levels mounted by an elaborate stairway clearly symbolizing the ascent
toward heaven. These early cities, (Those existing by 3500 BC), were called
temple towns because they were built around the temple of the local god.
The temples were eventually built up on towers called ziggurats (holy
mountains), which had ramps or staircases winding up around the exterior.
Public buildings and marketplaces were built around these shrines.
Egypt- pyramids, cliff tombs. temples, cities.
It is the one and only “wonder” which does not require a description
by early historians and poets. It is the one and only “wonder” that does not
need speculations concerning its appearance, size, and shape. It is the
oldest, yet it is the only surviving of the Seven Ancient Wonders. It is the
Great Pyramid of Giza.
A major problem facing the builders of the Ancient Egyptian
Pyramids, was that of getting the Large stone blocks to the height they
1.02 Historical and Technological Developments
required. The use of ramps is the only one proven to have been used. The
ramps were built on inclined planes of mud brick and rubble. They then
dragged the blocks on sledges to the needed height. As the pyramid grew
taller, the ramp had to be extended in length, and its base was widened, else
it would collapse. It is likely that for the construction of each pyramid,
several ramps were probably used.
Greece- Parthenon, Acropolis, amphitheaters, cities
The Parthenon is a Doric peripteral temple, which means that it
consists of a rectangular floor plan with a series of low steps on every side,
and a colonnade (8 x 17) of Doric columns extending around the periphery
of the entire structure. The three main types of columns used in Greek
temples and other public buildings are Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. The
truest and most basic difference among the orders has to do with proportions
(Doric columns, for example, being thicker and shorter, Ionic columns taller
and slimmer). As a shortcut, the orders may be distinguished most easily by
their capitals (the tops of the columns).
Rome- aqueducts, viaducts, baths, Coliseum, roads
The Amphitheater is 465 feet long, 386 feet wide and
118 feet high. The foundation of cement measures 23 feet
thick. The building was built on the site of an artificial lake
which had to be drained. Some of those drains are still in use
today. (If those drains were closed the amphitheater could be flooded for
mock sea battles) The exterior was made up of three tiers of arches. The
first sets of arches were Doric, the second Ionic, and the third were
Corinthian. The amphitheater was equipped with 240 masts. On the masts a
large canvas would be attached which could be extended to protect the
audience from the elements.
1.02 Historical and Technological Developments
China- Buddhist temples, gardens, homes, Great Wall
The Great Wall is reputed as one of the seven
construction wonders in the world not only for its long
history, but its massive construction size, and its unique architectural style as
well.
The construction of the Great Wall began between the 7th and 8th
centuries B.C. when the warring states built defensive walls to ward off
enemies from the north. It was only a regional project then. Until the Qin
Dynasty, the separate walls were jointed together and consequently it
stretched from east to west for about 5000 thousand kilometers and served to
keep nomadic tribes out. The Wall was further extended and strengthened in
the succeeding dynasties. Especially during the Ming dynasty when the
northern nomadic ethnic groups became very powerful, the Ming rulers had
the Wall renovated 18 times. As a result, not the remains from the Qin
dynasty were restored, but some 1000 kilometers were constructed to a full
length of 6,700 kilometers.
Japan- pagodas, temples, gardens, homes
Because of their wood construction, Japan's pagodas have always
been extremely vulnerable to fire. At the same time, these tall, slender
towers, built of interlocking posts and beams, are so resistant to earthquakes
and typhoons that Japan's long architectural history records only a very few
instances of their collapsing. Some 1,300 years after it was built, the fivestory pagoda of Horyuji in Nara shows not the slightest sign of instability.
In the article that follows, architect Ueda Atsushi describes the ingenious
techniques by which the Japanese of earlier times built their pagodas to
withstand even the strongest winds and earthquakes.
Of course, high towers have been built in the West ever since the
Middle Ages. In all cases, however, the material is masonry--stones or
bricks joined to form a single mass of wall capable of withstanding this or
that impact from without. In the case of Japan's wooden pagodas, however,
each story is structurally independent.
Each story of the pagoda is basically a square box with no bottom,
built around twelve outer pillars, or gawabashira. The pagoda as a whole is,
1.02 Historical and Technological Developments
in essence, five stacked boxes. Since each story is smaller than the one
beneath it, the placement of the gawabashira moves inward as one proceeds
up the pagoda, meaning that horizontal beams are needed to support the
gawabashira of each story above the first. In fact, these pillars rest on
horizontal bases, which in turn are supported by taruki--slanting beams that
run from the inside of the structure diagonally downward to the outside,
where they support the eaves.
The weight of the upper story, pushing down on the inner ends of the
taruki, would cause the outer ends to rise if there were no counterweight.
The heavy tiled roof of the eaves performs precisely this function. In short,
the taruki functions as a lever arm, while the top of the gawabashira serves
as the fulcrum.
The story above bears down on the inner end of the lever, and the
overhanging roof balances this load at the outer end or, to put it another way,
the heavy eaves are in effect supported by the story above. When one
reaches the uppermost level, of course, there is no story above to
counterbalance the overhang. Here, however, the tall copper or iron spire, or
finial, performs that function. The finial of the Horyuji pagoda, we are told,
weighs a full three tons.
Ueda explains in detail how this lever construction ensures that, during
typhoons and earthquakes, pagodas swing and sway but almost never
collapse. Built not to resist the forces of nature head-on but to accept and
absorb their impact, pagodas epitomize the ingenuity of traditional Japanese
wood architecture. This solution to the problem of structural stability could
be said to manifest the Japanese approach to nature--not only to observe it
carefully but also to learn from it and coexist harmoniously with it.
Islam- Hagia Shopia, mosques, minarets
Architecturally the grand basilica represented a major
revolution in church construction in that it featured a huge dome
which necessitated the implementation of new ideas in order to
support the weight of this dome, a feat which had not been
attempted before. In the days when there was no steel used in
construction, large roofs and domes had to be supported by
massive pillars and walls. The dome of Hagia Sophia was supported by four
1.02 Historical and Technological Developments
piers (the solid supports from which the arches spring), each measuring
about 118 square yards at the base. Four arches support the circular base
from which the dome rises and is pierced by forty single-arched windows
which admit light to the interior.
The church itself measures 260 x 270 feet; the dome rises 210 feet
above the floor and has a diameter of 110 feet. The nave is 135 feet wide,
more than twice the width of the aisles which measure 62 feet. Because
Constantinople lies in an earthquake-prone region, the massive structure of
the Great Church was deemed sufficient to meet the threat. That expectation
however was disappointed when in later years earthquakes destroyed parts
of the church and dome, requiring massive repairs including the construction
of large buttresses to support the walls which in turn held up the dome.
India- Taj mahal, rock cut temples
The Taj Mahal, India’s most famous architectural wonder, in a
land where magnificent temples and edifices abound, reminds visitors
about the rich civilization of a country that is slowly but surely lifting
itself into an industrialized society.
Taj Mahal means "Crown Palace" and is in fact the most well
preserved and architecturally beautiful tomb in the world. It is a celebration
of woman built in marble and that’s the way to appreciate it.
Construction began in 1631 and was completed in 22 years. Twenty
thousand people were deployed to work on it. The material was brought in
from all over India and central Asia and it took a fleet of 1000 elephants to
transport it to the site. The Taj rises on a high red sandstone base topped by
a huge white marble terrace on which rests the famous dome flanked by four
tapering minarets. Within the dome lies the jewel-inlaid cenotaph of the
queen. The rectangular base of Taj is in itself symbolic of the different sides
from which to view a beautiful woman. The main gate is like a veil to a
woman’s face which should be lifted delicately, gently and without haste on
the wedding night.
The dome is made of white marble, but the tomb is set against the
plain across the river and it is this background that works its magic of colors
that, through their reflection, change the view of the Taj. The colors change
at different hours of the day and during different seasons. Like a jewel, the
1.02 Historical and Technological Developments
Taj sparkles in moonlight when the semi-precious stones inlaid into the
white marble on the main mausoleum catch the glow of the moon. The Taj
is pinkish in the morning, milky white in the evening and golden when the
moon shines. These changes, they say, depict the different moods of
woman.
Pre-Columbian- Aztec, Maya, Inca
Their cities and fortresses were mostly built on highlands
and on the steep slopes of the Andes Mountains. The architecture
of the Inca cities still amazes and puzzles most scientists. Stone
steps lead up to the top of the cities, which consist of stone houses
and religious buildings. The blocks of stones weigh several tons
and they are fit together so tightly that not even a razor blade can fit through
them. The central city was mainly used for government purposes, while the
citizens occupied surrounding areas. Their homes were made from the same
stone material and had grass rooftops.
Since population was increasing and the organization of the Inca became
stronger, the need for protection became necessary. They built enormous
fortresses on top of steep mountains that enabled them to see their enemies
and defend themselves. One of the most famous Inca fortresses is
Sacasahuman (pictured above), located in Cuzco, the Inca Empire capital.
Even though the Inca never had access to the wheel, they built a
sophisticated road system to connect the villages.
The roads were paved with flat stones and barriers
to protect the messengers.
Medieval Europe- castles, cathedrals, hill towns, wall towns
Durham cathedral building - a large part of which dates back some
900 years - is widely regarded as one of the most complete and perfect
examples of Romanesque architecture still in existence.
ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE is the style of architecture that
flourished in Western Europe between 1050 and 1200. This style derived its
name from the fact that it drew much of its influence from Roman
1.02 Historical and Technological Developments
architecture. In England, it is also called the Norman style. Some of the
characteristic features of this school of architecture are:

Rounded arches

Squat, massive pillars

Small windows
Simple, carved decoration.

Renaissance Europe- St. Peter’s cathedral, Leaning Tower of Pisa
TOWER BASICS
Official Name: TORRE PENDENTE DI PISA
Function: Bell Tower (Campanile)
Original Architect: Bonanno Pisano
Architect who realized that the Leaning Tower could not be
straightened:
Tomasso di Andrea da Pontedera (1275)
Years Built: 1173-1350
First Construction Stop: 1178 (War with Firenze)
Year in which lean became obvious: 1178 (Third Story)
Height at which lean became obvious: 10.6 meters (35 ft.)
Level at which Tower Straightens to North: 5 (About 110 meters)
Second Construction Stop: 1185 (War with Firenze)
Later Construction Stop: 1284 (War with Genoa, Major Sea Battle Defeat)
Height: 55.863 meters (185 feet). 8 stories.
Weight: 14,700 metric tons
Thickness of Walls at the Base: 8 feet
Direction of Lean: 1173-1250 North, 1272-1997 South
7th Floor Completed: 1319
Bell Tower Completed: 1350
First Bells added: 1198 (Third Floor)
Total Number of Bells: 7, tuned to musical scale
Largest Bell: Three and a half tons, cast in 1655.
Year cement injected into base, (blamed for lean acceleration): 1934
Steps to Bell Tower: 294
Date Closed to Public: 7 January 1990
Date Re-opened to Public: 15 December 2001
1.02 Historical and Technological Developments
Weight of Lead added on North side: 600 tons (1995)
Amount of tilt recorded overnight in September 1995: 2.5 mm (0.07")
Weight of Lead added after overnight tilt in September 1995: 230 tons
Rate of Fall in 1990: 1.2 mm (1/20") every year ("Un millimetre per anno")
Source: The Guardian (London) August 19 1997
Amount of tilt correction from 1990 - 1999: 25 mm (about 1.0")
Amount of tilt correction from 1999-2001: 43.8 cm (about 17.25")
Date that Tower was last at current tilt: 1700
Modern Europe- Bauhaus style, Eiffel Tower, Euro tunnel, Millenium
dome
The Millennium Dome is the largest structure of its type in the World.
100,000 square meters of domed fabric held up by forty-three miles of highstrength cabling, the building measures over one kilometer in circumference
and covers over 80,000 square meters. It is so big; it would completely
cover the Great Pyramid of Giza. The cover of the Dome is made of PTFEcoated glass fiber, which has an estimated minimum lifetime of 25 years.
The structure, designed by the Richard Rogers Partnership is 320m in
diameter and 50 meters high at its center. It is twice the size of the
Wembley stadium and covers 20 acres of ground floor space. The structure
is expected to last until 2018. After that year, developers are allowed to
demolish the dome and redevelop the site.
Early U.S. - Native American dwellings, pioneer homes, Colonial
architecture
Tepees (or tipis): The name tepee is derived from a Dakota word
meaning a place where one lives. Developed by Indians of the northern
forests, the tepee was crafted from a pole frame then covered with birch
bark, caribou hides or other materials. The basic structure was then adapted
by nomadic Plains tribes, who strengthened the frame against strong winds
and sewed buffalo hides together for the covering. Since the Plains Indians
were constantly on the move, their homes had to be readily transportable.
The supporting poles were lashed to the sides of a horse and the other pieces
dragged along the ground forming a kind of triangle. The buffalo hide
covering as well as most of the family's other belongings were then carried
off to the new location by the horse. This transport system was called a
travois.
1.02 Historical and Technological Developments
Contemporary U.S. - Empire State Building, Astrodome, St. Louis
Arch, Capital building
The stainless-steel-faced St. Louis Arch spans 630 ft. between the
outer faces of its triangular legs at ground level, and its top soars 630 ft. into
the sky. It takes the shape of an inverted catenary curve; a shape such as this
would be formed by a heavy chain hanging freely between two supports.
Each leg is an equilateral triangle with sides 54 ft. long at ground level,
tapering to 17 ft. at the top. The legs have double walls of steel 3 ft. apart at
ground level and 7-3/4 in. apart above the 400-foot level. Up to the 300-foot
mark the space between the walls is filled with reinforced concrete. Beyond
that point steel stiffeners are used.
The double-walled, triangular sections were placed one on top of
another and then welded inside and out to build the legs of the Arch.
Sections ranged in height from 12 ft. at the base to 8 ft. for the two keystone
sections. The complex engineering design and construction is completely
hidden from view. All that can be seen is its sparkling stainless steel outside
skin and inner skin of carbon steel, which combine to carry the gravity and
wind loads to the ground. The Arch has no real structural skeleton. Its inner
and outer steel skins, joined to form a composite structure, give it its strength
and permanence.