SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF LATVIAN MARITIME HUMAN RESOURCE
DEVELOPMENT; A MARITIME CLUSTER APPROACH
ILGTSPĒJĪGA LATVIJAS JŪRNIECĪBAS CILVĒKRESURSU ATTĪSTĪŠANA;
JŪRNIECĪBAS KLASTERA PIEEJA
Maurice Jansen MSc - Head of Netherlands Maritime University and
Roberts Gailitis - Master student Netherlands Maritime University
STC-Group / Netherlands Maritime University
Lloydstraat 300, 3059RB Rotterdam, The Netherlands, info@stc-nmu.eu / www.stc-nmu.eu
Abstact
Jūrniecības sektora nozīmīguma nenovērtēšana transporta industrijā ir sekmējusi jūtamu
Latvijas jūrnieku skaita samazināšanos pēdējo piecu gadu laikā. Ņemot vērā Nīderlandes
piemēru, kura bija līdzīgā situācijā deviņdesmito gadu vidū, rakstā tiek vilktas paralēles starp
abām valstīm un to jūrniecības sektoriem. Rakstā, salīdzinot abas valstis, tiek sintezētas
rekomendācijas kā piemērojot Nīderlandes jūrniecības klastera pieredzi cilvēkresursu attīstībā
attīstīt cilvēkresursus jūrniecības klasterī Latvijā. Klasteru teorija, balstīta uz Portera dimanta
modeli, ir izmantota kā pamats, lai paskaidrotu Holandes jūrniecības klasteri.
Over the last five years Latvia witnessed a silent decline in the number of seafarers, while
shipping companies have been desperately roaming the world for competent officers.
Apparently this paradox has happened relatively unnoticed by the public opinion and is
therefore in itself a clear signal for the underestimation of the maritime industry in Latvia,
including maritime education. The cluster theory, based on Porter’s diamond model is used as
a framework to understand the maritime cluster. The Netherlands have been one of the first to
build their maritime policy on the cluster approach. This research paper draws parallels
between the current challenges of the maritime cluster in Latvia and those of the Netherlands in
the mid-nineties. Conclusions are drawn on possible strategies to be pursued for sustainable
human resource development in the maritime cluster in Latvia.
Introduction - Decline in number of Latvian seamen resources
Throughout the last years there has been a considerable decline in seamen resources working on
merchant vessels in Latvia. The decline measured 21.5 % over a period of 3 years are dramatic
to say the least, especially in the perspective of the world economic upswing that we have
witnessed until 2008. It looks like employment ashore and most likely in a complete different
sector than shipping is perceived as a much more attractive career path compared to
employment at sea. Despite the long maritime tradition of Latvia, only 10% of seamen
registered in the Seamen’s Register of Latvia are employed on ships sailing the Latvian flag.
Since the economic downturn, which impacted Latvia and many European economies, the
decline of seafarers has been stopped and seamen are taking back their jobs at sea due to job
loss ashore. Unemployment in Latvia rose from 4.9% in June of 2008 until 10.7% in March of
2009 [Source: State Employment Agency Latvia, 12 April 2009]. However this will likely
appear to only be a temporary effect which will reverse once the economy picks up again. It
certainly is not a solution to the structural problems that lie underneath the surface:
These problems are:
- Unfavourable business climate for Latvian and foreign shipowners, considering the low
number of ships registered under Latvian flag;
- The true value of shipping activities in Latvia is unknown;
- There seems to be an ambiguous view on the maritime industry, employment and
education.
- Seafaring profession is not perceived as an attractive career path;
- Maritime education does not appeal to Latvian youngsters chosing their studies
Jansen, M. and Gailitis, R.
Page 1 of 10
The objective of this research paper is:
-
-
To explore and provide understanding of the links between the players within the
maritime cluster, the employment at maritime companies, the inflow of graduates from
maritime education centers to the maritime labour market and the importance of their
value added for the Latvian economy as a whole;
To investigate to what extent a cluster-based strategy would be effective in order to turn
around the decline of active maritime seafarers in Latvia.
This research paper draws parallels between the current situation of the shipping sector in
Latvia and situation that the Dutch shipping industry was facing in the mid-nineties. This
country-to-country comparison will lead to preliminary conclusions on possible strategic
directions for initiatives and policies for the promotion of maritime education in Latvia.
Latvia – a seafaring nation, but will it last?
The Latvia is a maritime country - the total length of coastline is 531 km. There are three major
ports in Latvia – Liepaja, Riga and Ventspils, as well as seven smaller ports – Skulte, Mersrags,
Salacgriva, Pavilosta, Roja, Lielupe and Engure, which are situated along the entire coastline of
Latvia. The larger ports are mainly involved in processing transit freight – around 80% of transit
freight transported through Latvia is handled through these ports. Smaller ports have local
significance.
In Latvia as well as in other countries the growth of economy depends on the development of
the transport sector and the infrastructure of logistics related to it. In the USA and Europe the
expenditure on logistics comprises 8.6 % and 7.8 % of GDP, respectively. The volume of the
world market of transport-logistics services is estimated of $1500 billion, which is about 4.7 %
of the global GDP. The proportion of revenue from the transport branch in GDP of Latvia has
been on average 13.5 % since 1999, it is 2.87 times higher than the respective global indicator.
Thus, it can be concluded that in Latvia transport is one of the branches forming the state
revenue [Meirane, 2007]. Latvia is standing out with more than 76% of their transport being
with other European Union member states. This emphasises the strong trade relationships
between Latvia and the rest of Europe. In terms of seaborne cargo handled per inhabitant, Latvia
holds fourth position, behind Norway, Estonia and The Netherlands, marking its position as
transit country. Over 2007, Latvia witnessed a growth in seaborne cargo throughput of almost
8% [Eurostats, 2009]. Especially in short sea shipping, there are opportunities for Latvia. 62%
of all seaborne transport in Europe is done via short sea shipping. 20% of all short sea shipping
takes place in the Baltic Sea.
Table 1 indicates the unfavourable business climate for Latvian and foreign shipowners.
Ships type
Cargo ships
Fishing vessels
Passenger ships
Tugs
Auxiliary fleet
Icebreaker
Total
01.01.2005
Number Thous
DWT
30
328,4
91
14,5
8
12,1
25
1,9
69
68,1
1
5,0
224
430,0
01.01.2006
Number Thous
DWT
30
329,9
86
14,0
7
12,1
27
2,0
55
54,2
1
5,0
206
417,2
01.01.2007
Number Thous
DWT
32
343.3
81
13.2
8
14.0
25
1.7
58
55.1
1
5.0
205
432.3
01.01.2008
Number Thous
DWT
30
213.0
76
12.0
8
22.4
22
1.4
56
54.8
1
5.0
193
308.6
01.01.2009
Number Thous
DWT
29
208.9
76
12.7
9
25.6
24
1.9
55
55.0
1
5.0
194
309.1
Table 1: Number of ships under Latvian flag > 100 GRT.
Source: Latvian Maritime Administration
Recently Drewry Shipping Consultants announced the shortfall for officers for the forthcoming
years. The shortage of qualified seamen is expected to be between 33,000 for 2009, and will
Jansen, M. and Gailitis, R.
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increase to 57,000 in 2013 under the current market conditions. A scenario that takes into
account 10% new order cancellations and 10% rise in scrapping volumes foresee a shortage of
42,700 officers in 2013.
In 2005 there were 18,600 certified seamen of merchant fleet, consisting of 8,200 officers and
10,400 ratings. In comparison, in 2008 there were 14,600 certified seamen on the merchant fleet
of which 6,100 officers and 8500 ratings [Latvian Maritime Administration, 2005 and 2008].
The main importance is to the number of officers. The present ratio in pool is 40 % officers and
60 % ratings. The aim of Latvia is to change ratio and make 60% officers and 40 % ratings as in
most European countries. Close attention should be paid to maritime educational institutes, as
they are delivering the seafarers of the future.
250
Intake
Graduates
Drop-outs
Number of students
200
150
100
50
0
2004-2005
2005-2006
2006-2007
2007-2008
2008-2009
Figure 1: Intake and graduates of Latvian Maritime Academy
Source: Latvian Maritime Academy, 2009
Over the last five years, the average number of students studying in Latvian Maritime Academy
was 400 full-time students. The trend shows a stable number of intakes durinng the last four
years. With regard to the number of graduates, there is a downward trend. LMA statistics shows
that average number of graduates is 136 graduates during last 5 years. However in last two years
there is sharp fall from 166 in 2006 to 96 in 2008 [Latvian Maritime Academy, 2009]. The
graph reflects also the changes in the education system from a two-tier education model to a
one-tier Bachelor’s level program. In the old model a graduate from a 1st level program could
only sail as a 3rd and 2nd navigation or engine officer. Most 1st level graduate students enrolled
the 2nd level, which gives them perspective on a job as senior navigation or engine officers.
This explains why the intake in 2004-2005 is so high. These graduate students are counted as
intake, whereas they were already enrolled to the maritime education.
The average number of 2nd level graduates over a 5-year period totals 60 students for both
navigation and engineering programs. However part of the graduates go straight to ashore
vacancies after graduation of LMA. A clear example is the class that graduated from 2nd level
in 2008. From 40 navigators, 75% actually have gone to sea. The other 25% joined the transport
industry ashore.
As a conclusion, we can say that the real value of the maritime academy is the delivery of 100
graduates per year to the maritime cluster. As the economic importance of the maritime cluster
in Latvia is yet undefined, the question remains how many competent seafarers are actually
needed. Based on Drewry’s manning report there still is enough employment for competent
seafarers on the world fleet.
Jansen, M. and Gailitis, R.
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The Netherlands – striving to maintain a world leading maritime cluster
The Netherlands is renowned for its position as Gateway to Europe. The Netherlands have a
market share of approximately 15% in terms of gross weight of seaborne goods handled in all
European countries. 69% of this cargo volume has an origin or destination outside the European
Union. Rotterdam, the largest port in Europe recorded an all-time high of 421 million tons of
cargo throughput in 2008 [Eurostat, Statistics in focus: Transport, 2009]. A groundbreaking port
expansion plan ‘Maasvlakte 2’ was started in September 2008. The construction works will add
another 2,000 hectares of port area.
Trade and transport are considered to be of vital importance for the competitiveness of The
Netherlands. The two mainports Amsterdam Schiphol Airport and Port of Rotterdam are crucial
pillars for the country’s economy. 187,000 people are employed within the maritime cluster,
creating an added value of € 13.3 billion. Research also shows that the composition and quality
of the maritime cluster is a critical success factor to the competitiveness of Rotterdam.
The Netherlands hold an important position as flag and port state located at the North Sea to
safeguard safe, but efficient navigation. The North Sea is one of the busiest seaways in the
world with around 260,000 ship movements per year of which 110,000 are destined for a port in
The Netherlands. The Dutch also want to maintain their reputation with their Quality Fleet to
promote The Netherlands flag register. A solid base of labour with know-how of safe, efficient
shipping is required.
Despite the reputation of Rotterdam as the largest port in the world, in the nineties the
competitiveness of The Netherlands as a location for shipping activities was unattractive.
Shipping companies were struggling from heavy competition from low cost countries that were
not keeping so strict to safety and labour conditions. Shipbuilding industry had suffered from
fierce competition – first from the Japanese and later also from the Koreans.
The number of vessels under Dutch flag declined from 548 to 371 [Beleidsbrief Zeevaart, June
2008). In 1996, 15,000 people were employed in shipping in The Netherlands, of which 13,750
seamen. 6,100 seamen had the Dutch nationality. Around 400 students graduated from the
Dutch maritime academies in 1994. With a peak of 515 in 1998, the outflow from maritime
academies stabilised between 400 and 500.
It was at that time that The Netherlands realised it had to act profoundly in order to prevent the
maritime industry from disappearing. Research had shown that the competitiveness of a
shipping company depends primarily on two key aspects: the capability to keep crewing costs
low and the fiscal regime of the flag register. Another result from this study was the
understanding that 70% of the value of shipping activities was actually created ashore, whereas
30% was created on the ships [Peeters, Debisschop, Vandendriessche, Wijnolst, 1994]. The
Dutch government wanted shipping companies to bring their ships under the Dutch flag, so
valuable employment would also settle in the country.
The economic policy of the new maritime policy comprised of a number of areas:
- Fiscal instruments to improve the business climate and location. A tonnage tax system
was introduced. The Netherlands introduced a tonnage tax system. A shipping company
pays a sort of corporate tax however it is determined over the netto tonnage of a (fleet
of) ships that are managed to a large extent in The Netherlands;
- Labour market instruments to reduce the labour costs for the employer in order to make
them market conform;
- Introduction of the Maritime cluster policy, in which the relationship was made between
the shipping industry and other maritime related economic activities.
In addition, short sea was regarded as an important and at that time fairly unused mode of
transport to alleviate the pressure from the European transport connections over land.
Jansen, M. and Gailitis, R.
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‘Cluster’-strategy may provide understanding for industry’s competitiveness
Over the years there has been a growing consensus that competitiveness of companies depends
to a large extent on the vicinity of and business-to-business connections with companies,
research institutions, universities and a supporting governments. In his work, Porter describes a
number of traditional comparative advantages: land, location, national resources, labour, local
population size. Just the favourable location however does not guarantee long term
competitiveness. Porter introduced the concept of a cluster: “a geographically proximate group
of interconnected companies and associated institutions in a specific field based on
commonalities and complementarities. He concludes that the success of a cluster is based on the
availability of critical mass, presence of know-how and a climate in which companies can
complement each other and improve productivity and enhance innovation. As these factors are
primarily inherited and difficult to influence, the sustained economic growth lies in the
combination”.
Porter describes five interlinked conditions for a country to gain comparative advantage:
- Firm Strategy, structure and rivalry; competition between companies over the long run
forces companies to innovate and improve.
- Demand conditions: a larger home market leads to companies devoting themselves to
this product. Whenever these companies start exporting, they will have a competitive
advantage over foreign companies.
- Related and supporting industries: competition between local supporting industries
results in more effective and innovative inputs for other companies in the cluster
- Factor conditions: a country can create its own important factors such as skilled labour
and a technological base. Shortage in factors of production forces companies to be
innovative in finding different methods, often leading to a competitive advantage.
Porter also describes the role of the government, such as to encourage companies to raise their
performance by increasing strict product standards. A good example if the green policy of the
European Union towards cleaner diesel engines for trucks on European road network. Another
way for the government to play a role is to stimulate early demand, but also to encourage local
rivalry and implement anti-trust regulations.
Maritime cluster strategy seems to be key to success
The Dutch flower cluster was one of the examples that Porter refers to in his explanation of his
‘diamond model’, which explains the importance of a cluster to company’s long term
competitiveness. The know-how and innovation that is realised and highly efficient trading,
auctioning and shipping flowers around the world make it the world leader in cut flowers and
plants. In the nineties, the Dutch government adopted the cluster methodology to build an
economic strategy on the geographical location and the presence of the two mainports
(Amsterdam Schiphol Airport and Port of Rotterdam). The favourable geographical location
was considered to be a key asset to build a long term competitive advantage. The delta of the
rivers Rhine and Meuse provides access to a developed consumer market and a broad industrial
base of 350 million people lying in the hinterland. Nowadays, 30% of all cargo throughput in
Rotterdam is destined or originates from Germany [Lloyd’s List Special Report Germany,
September 2007].
In line with Porter’s conclusions, it appeared that a favourable geographical location alone is not
enough. The real strategic challenge was how to create value and employment from all these
goods that are transhipped in the Dutch ports, and transported over Dutch roads, railways and
inland waterways. It was argued by antigonists that The Netherlands were only suffering from
road congestion, air pollution and low value economic activities.
A significant research [Peeters, Debisschop, Vandendriessche, Wijnolst, 1994] investigated the
future of the maritime sector. One of the main conclusions was that competitiveness of the
maritime companies was primarily based on the interdependencies between the actors in this
network: shipping companies, port authorities, research institutions, universities, education
Jansen, M. and Gailitis, R.
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instutions and suppliers. In this research the maritime cluster was segmented in 11 sectors:
shipping, shipbuilding, ports, navy, fishery, offshore, dredging, inland shipping, maritime
suppliers, maritime services, and watersports (yachts).
The Shipping Policy that was launched in 1996 can be considered as a success. The tonnage tax
system was an important incentive to persuade shipping companies to bring their flag under
Dutch register. Several other European countries have used this instrument to influence their
national maritime policies and improve their competitiveness. Also the cut on income tax for
seafarers was effective in creating a level playing field for shipowners that allowed them to sail
with Dutch crew and at the same time compete on cost with ‘flag of convenience’ countries.
Both instruments are good examples of Porter’s idea that government’s instruments can heavily
influence the competitiveness of the cluster.
Another positive effect was the growth of employment in the entire maritime cluster, including
the shipping sector. The maritime cluster comprises approximately 11,500 companies [ Dutch
Maritime Cluster, NML, 2006]. Total employment in the cluster stands at 187,000 of which
133,250 are employed within the maritime cluster itself. The maritime cluster is also a motor for
exports.
The initiative of Dutch Maritime Network can be regarded as an important contributor to the
success of the maritime cluster. The Network has functioned as an ambassador – both in The
Netherlands to promote careers and education – but also abroad thereby promoting The
Netherlands as a centre of excellence for all maritime business activities, research and education.
The Dutch register witnessed a growth of almost 200 ships. In total more than 1,500 ships are
now under Dutch ownership and/or management. On the other hand must be concluded that the
success of the Shipping Policy of 1996 has faded. It is generally concluded that the Dutch
register lost its attractiveness. Recently new maritime policy has been launched that will have to
reposition The Netherlands as a Quality Register and enable cost competitiveness as well.
Dutch flag
Foreign flag
1996 2003 2006 1996 2003 2006
Activity
Merchant shipping
386
625
568
331
448
375
tugs
154
186
163
187
272
329
dredging
142
158
158
34
33
37
Total
682
969
889
552
753
741
Table 2: Number of vessels in Dutch fleet
Source: Ministry of Transport, The Netherlands, 2008
In 2007, the employment of seafarers on the Dutch fleet reached 22,409 [Maritime Labour
Market Monitor, 2008]. In that year the share of foreign seafarers had increased to 75%.
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
1996
1998
2002
2004
2005
2006
2007
Figure 2: Seafarers (incl. internships) on Dutch fleet
Jansen, M. and Gailitis, R.
Page 6 of 10
Source: Ministry of Transport, The Netherlands, 2008
Although the number of Dutch seamen has remained stable around 4,500 the share of Dutch
seamen has been drastically reduced. Reasons are considered to be found in the low profile of
seafaring career and the availability of well-paid jobs ashore in other industries. The Dutch
Shipowners’ Association considers the inflow of qualified Dutch master mariners and officers
of utmost importance in their strategy to grow their industry. Besides the direct importance of
Dutch people aboard the ships, the knowledge and experience is of vital importance for jobs
within maritime companies ashore.
Clearly it remains difficult to attract young people to go to sea. However, compared to the
downward interest to choose technical education in The Netherlands, a stable in and outflow of
maritime education programs may still be seen as a small success.
800
Inflow
Graduates
700
Number of students
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Figure 3: New students and graduates in Dutch maritime education
As it appears from the above, it seems the Shipping Policy was nothing but success, but nothing
lasts forever. The tax tonnage system has been copied by several other countries and even
improved. The Netherlands filed a revised tonnaxe tax proposal to the European Commission
which is now waiting for approval. The facilitation of the government is once more required to
be able to compete equally with other nations. If we refer once again to Porter’s diamond model,
we can conclude that it is increasingly difficult for the maritime cluster to create its own
important production factors such as skilled labour and develop and maintain the knowledge
within the cluster.
The shortage of seafarers has primarily been solved by recruiting an increasing number of
seafarers abroad. Educational institutions like STC-Group have followed the shipowners by
building education programs for seafarers and port logistics companies abroad. The question is
whether this really is sustainable knowledge to the Dutch maritime cluster. Therefore the inflow
of students to maritime education programs in The Netherlands is stable and therefore requires
continuous efforts.
Despite all this, a clear and shared strategic agenda – both commercially and politically –
ensures that maritime affairs in The Netherlands are a shared concern of private companies,
education institutions, sector associations and government. There is no doubt that individual
companies see, feel and understand the importance of being part of the maritime cluster.
Evaluation research is conducted periodically to closely monitor the developments in
employment with every subsector in the maritime cluster: business activity, growth of
employment, education levels and training needs, ageing developments, inflow and outflow of
people, mobility within the sector, and (duration of) job vacancies. These periodical evaluations
are a rich source of information for all actors in the network to build their plans upon: where to
recruit and what levels of education are required, what are overall results in terms of added
Jansen, M. and Gailitis, R.
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value and employment. Joint action plans are being developed to make the seafarer’s profession
attractive [Taskforce Labourmarket Seafarers].
Synthesis – lessons to be drawn from country-to-country benchmark
What can be concluded from the country-to-country benchmark? There seems to be a similarity
to Latvia’s challenges and those of The Netherlands. What strategies could be pursued for
sustainable human resource development in the maritime cluster in Latvia?
1) When The Netherlands had to reinvent their shipping policy in the nineties, one of the
first elements to define was the economic value add of the maritime activities. It soon
became clear that the economic value add lies in the combination of strenghts of actors
in different subsectors of the maritime cluster. Additionally a critical mass of the
maritime specialists is necessary for companies to maintain their compeitive position
compared to foreign competitors. At this moment, the determination of economic added
value of the Latvian maritime cluster is unclear. Without this understanding it is
therefore difficult to determine what the level of students’ intake should be for the long
perspective.
2) Similar to the focus of The Netherlands on maintaining its position as ‘Gateway to
Europe’, the maritime policy should be based upon a primary strategic objective. For
instance, Latvia has a favourable position to becoming the Short Sea Shipping centre in
the Baltics and an important hub between major North Sea ports and Northeastern
European and Russia. For a number of years, Latvian transport ministry recognised
development of Short Sea Shipping as an important objective. Nevertheless a clear
action plan has not been made so far. As long as there is no outspoken strategy on
maritime policy – e.g. based on Short Sea Shipping - it remains very difficult to come to
a clear plan to retain, recruit and educate people for a maritime career.
3) Draw a joint action plan to make maritime cluster attractive to work in. Latvian
maritime community should determine a joint action plan towards promotion of the
maritime professions. With the economic downturn, there is still a significant shortage
of seafarers. Without a clear profile it shows from the comparison with The Netherlands
that companies – not just shipowners, but the entire transport sector – in Latvia will face
difficulties finding skilled and competent employees and be able to compete on the
European market. The use of foreign seafarers may be cheaper, but will not bring
sustainable know-how to the Latvian shipping companies in the long run, certainly not
for shore-based functions.
4) Make Latvian flag attractive for shipping companies to establish themselves in Latvia.
Without an effective incentive plan, shipping companies will continue to choose flags
of convenience and maintain their focus for short term cost focus. These companies
form the heart of the maritime cluster and are katalysators for innovation and
knowledge transfer. These companies are the first to demanding competent seafarers,
not just at sea, but also ashore.
5) The pool of Latvian seafarers is already in decline. If we extrapolate this decline to the
future and take into account a seafarer’s years at sea, it will not take long before the
employment will disappear at all. The number of graduates from Latvian Maritime
Academy is an important factor to show this decline will continue. Despite all efforts
that the Dutch maritime cluster undertakes, it has managed to maintain a stable level of
500 graduates per year. If we compare this to the efforts that are conducted in Latvia,
there definitely needs to be more cooperation, more effort, more promotion and more
commitment from all stakeholders.
6) Establish a network organisation with main objective to promote maritime cluster in
Latvia and representation in EU maritime cluster association. In Europe there is a
development of a number of maritime clusters, like Norway, Denmark, The Netherlands,
Jansen, M. and Gailitis, R.
Page 8 of 10
Germany, Italy, Poland, Spain, Sweden and United Kingdom that are clustering
together on a European scale. Latvia supports the European Commission’s general
objectives to provide an holistic approach for establishing an integrated maritime policy.
Joining this network of European maritime clusters will put this intention to work,
thereby creating a single European maritime labour market together, offering Latvian
graduates a much broader access to employment on the European fleet. As a result this
would also create attractiveness to the Latvian youngster to join maritime education
programs.
7) The economic crisis should not stop the initiatives that are required. Because of the four
year education program investing during economical downturns prepares people for
economically better times. Despite the lower transport volumes the shortage of seamen
has diminished but certainly not reversed in an oversupply.
Further research is required
This research paper has a number of shortcomings and therefore requires further research. This
paper has primarily been based on desk research, which necessitates field research in Latvia.
Firstly it is recommended to determine the size and structure of the maritime cluster. Secondly,
the cross-relationships between subsegments of maritime cluster should be determined and
quantified. An economical impact analysis should determine the true value added of the
maritime cluster in Latvia.
References
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Jansen, M. and Gailitis, R.
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