Emotional and Social Development in Late Adulthood
Erikson’s Theory: Ego Integrity vs. Despair is the final stage of life. This involves
coming to terms with one’s life. If there is a sense of integrity, people feel whole,
complete, and satisfied with their life choices and achievements. They have accepted the
setbacks and disappointments and celebrated the successes and found a way to meaning
within all these life events. Everything gets put into a perspective which allows a certain
contentment with life. Increased age is associated with greater maturity and well-being.
There is even a peace about one’s mortality, even as close to the end as these people are.
Despair, on the other hand occurs when seniors feel they have made wrong decisions, but
life is too short to remedy any life directions. They display bitterness, defeat and anxiety
about death, a hopelessness. Their contempt for themselves is displayed as anger toward
others. This further alienates them from the very relationships they need to put right in
order to find peace. It is a sad cycle.
Other Theories of Psychosocial Development in Late Adulthood
 Peck’s Theory: three Tasks of Ego Integrity are involved in finding integrity:
o Ego differentiation vs. work-role preoccupation. This task comes out of
retirement, as people who have been invested in careers find other ways to
self-worth. They must find another role to invest in and find meaning.
o Body transcendence vs. body preoccupation. This task requires finding
a way to transcend physical limitations, disabilities, loss of youth and
beauty, to find value in cognitive, social strengths & relationships.
o Ego transcendence vs. ego preoccupation. This task involves finding a
constructive way of facing the reality of death. Elders must find a future
beyond their own mortality, through giving back to a younger generation.
 Labouvie-Vief’s Theory: Emotional Expertise. Early adulthood is all about
pragmatic choices- finding ways to solve real-world problems, at work as well as
within relationships. Elders are becoming more in touch with their feelings and
must use those feelings to reflect on their life experiences. This emotional
sensitivity allows elders to detach from experiences in order to choose better how
to respond. Younger people are more impulsively emotional in their coping and
problem-solving. Elders are better at emotional self-regulation.
 Reminiscence and Life Review
o Reminiscence is telling stories about people and events from one’s past,
and reporting thoughts and feelings
o Life review is reminiscence in which the person reflects on past
experiences, considering their meaning with the goal of achieving greater
self-understanding. . It’s part of coming to terms with one’s life choices
and experiences. These life review experiences result in elders finding
more respect for their lives and general life satisfaction. When people
review their lives, 30% say the best time of their lives is the present.
Middle age was also assessed as satisfying, with childhood and
adolescence ranked as less satisfying. Other purposes of life review:
 Self-focused reminiscence, if linked to reviving bitter events is
pathological- they are ruminating in negative directions, feeling
badly as they remember the past.
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Other-focused reminiscence is directed at social goals, family,
reliving relationships with others. These people are more
extraverted, so their memories are more focused on others.
Knowledge-based reminiscence uses the past to solve problems
and teach younger people. Certain cultures rely on elders telling
the stories of their people in order to enlighten younger members
in how to live honorably. (Chinese, African-American, NativeAmerican groups)
Reminiscence also occurs during times of life transitionretirement, loss of spouse, moves- these reminiscences allow for a
feeling of continuity and meaning in the face of change.
Stability and Change in Self-Concept and Personality
 Secure and Multifaceted Self-Concept- after a lifetime of self-knowledge,
people feel more secure about whom they are, and their self-concepts become
more complex and multi-faceted. With that complex knowledge, people can make
compensations in areas of weakness, and they develop deeper self-acceptance.
People define themselves more broadly, not just in terms of work. Healthy elders
report areas they still hope for development, as if they are still a work in progress.
 Agreeableness, Sociability, and Acceptance of Change- there are 3 shifts in
personality at this point: a more flexible and optimist approach to life is present.
o Agreeableness – generosity, acquiescence, and good-naturedness are
higher for many people at this point.
o Sociability drops to some extent, as people become more selective about
relationships and significant people die or move away.
o Acceptance of change seems to link to well-being. They develop a
capacity to accept life’s vagaries, and they are resilient in the face of
adversity.
 Spirituality and Religiosity- their sense of spirituality encompasses their lives
more meaningfully. Often there develops a sense of truth and beauty in art, nature,
and relationships. Religion gives people rituals that stabilize life and give
meaning to the life struggle. 76% of Americans over 65 say religion is very
important in their lives, and 16% say it is fairly important. They may not be as
active in church because of physical limitations or transportation issues, but they
say they would devote more time to it if they could. Spirituality advances to a
higher level in late life- to a more reflective approach that is more at ease with the
unknowable aspects of life.
o Fowler’s Stages of Faith Development show there can be a development
of understanding of one’s beliefs in relation to others’. Women are more
likely than men to be church members, to be active in religious activities,
and to report a desire to connect with the Divine. It may have to do with
women’s common cultural roles- caregiving to various generations,
widowhood, greater risk of poverty, unmanageable stress.
 Intuitive-projective- 3-7 is when children’s fantasy life allows
them to be influenced by stories and faith of adults.
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Mythic-literal- 7-11 is when internalize the stories and rituals of
their faith literally.
 Synthetic-conventional- adolescence is when people set up a
belief system as a basis for identity.
 Individuative-reflective-adulthood is when people reflect on their
beliefs and begin to recognize that others believe other things, and
they more actively form an ideology in terms of meaning for
themselves personally.
 Conjunctive- Late adulthood is when people incorporate the entire
human community in their values- to stand up against persecution
and work for the good of people they don’t even know.
World War II Refugee and Evacuee Children Look back at Old Age- these
people were either evacuated from Europe and Britain early in the war to save
their lives, never to see their families again, or were evacuated and returned to
their families after the war. Their recollections varied according to the quality of
care their received, age at separation, and temperament. Care situations were
families, institutions. The better care they got, the more their memories were
positive, but bonds with the former family were often lost. Those who got
indifferent care couldn’t bond and were left in “emotional limbo” without new
attachments. This loss of bonding had a lasting impact on withdrawn, anxious
individuals than on more extraverted people who found others to bond with. Time
of separation made a difference- children were more affected than adolescents.
Teens did better in group homes or boarding schools. They often found other
peers to bond with at this point. Some that lived in group homes felt isolated,
without love however. Those who were reunited with families were young adults
and their reunification was bittersweet- since both children and families had
changed so much. Without reunification, however, there is idealization of the lost
family and unresolved grief. Those who lost their entire families to the Holocaust
felt the loss even more intensely as time went on. Even so, most people that went
through this experience were reasonably well-adjusted, finding love later, and
careers. They usually have a strong resilience of spirit, feeling they have already
faced the worst the world could dish out.
Individual differences in Psychological Well-Being- what makes the difference in a
person’s life adaptation and well-being?
 Control vs. Dependency- there are 2 common scripts of people helping elders
o Dependency-support script is a script in which dependent behaviors are
attended to immediately, reinforcing the weaker member in her
dependency.
o Independence-ignore script is a script where independent behaviors are
ignored, also reinforcing dependency in the weaker member.
Unfortunately, being dependent is not a happy state, so the helper is often
resented, even though the elder may recognize s/he needs the help. These
negative feelings can foster depression. Context makes a difference
however, since the more lovingly the help is offered, the easier it is to
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accept without regret. Elders will need help, but we can offer it without
expressing disgust or impatience for their needs.
o Elder Suicide is not always evident. Sometimes elders quit eating, taking
care of emotional or physical problems, refusing to take meds, refusing
relationships that could be encouraging. Suicide peaks in late life, around
75, especially for men. Five times more elderly men commit suicide as
women, even though women have greater rates of depression. Women
have broader networks of social support, however. Men choose more
definitive means of suicide- guns, which allow little resuscitation. White
people are at highest risk, ethnically.
o Factors related to Elder suicide- Two life events can prompt suicide:
loss- of job, spouse may put people at sea trying to cope and adjust; and
chronic or terminal illness that cause pain or diminish independent
functioning. Men are so socialized to be active and independent, that if
they lose that to an illness, they often can’t find any compensating aspects
of life.
 Prevention and treatment – there are some warning signsputting affairs in order, veiled statements about going away, dying,
sleep or appetite changes. There are often self-destructive acts such
as refusing to eat, or go to the doctor, or take meds. As many as
70% of suicide victims saw their doctor within a month of taking
their lives, yet family nor doctor picked up on signals of despair.
They need antidepressant meds, therapy, possibly hospitalization
to deal with the immediate crisis. It’s good if regular home visitors
can be engaged, as well as day activities for the person to look
forward to.
Health is a strong predictor of well-being in late adulthood. When people face
illness or chronic disabilities, they feel a loss of personal control. Not only does
helplessness increase, but social isolation increases, too. Then as mental health
declines, it affects physical health, as people eat more poorly, get out less, distract
themselves less from their ailments. If a senior must move to a nursing home,
there is a redefinition of identity, as a person who can survive only in an
institution. Many people get seriously depressed and deteriorate rapidly in a
nursing home. Serious depression is associated with suicide. If they can retain any
autonomy in an institution, it contributes to their successful survival.
Negative Life Changes occur more often in late adulthood- loss of friends,
spouses, poor health issues, financial strain & greater dependency. This issues hit
women more often, but they still report that they have people who depend on
them emotionally, so they retain some of their former identity, even though many
relationships often feel strained, due to the women’s lower ability to care for
others.
Social Support and Social Interaction – social support reduces stress, so it
promotes health & well-being, and increases the odds of living longer. If elders
require much assistance from others, though, they often feel distressed that they
can no longer reciprocate. Paid helpers relieve some of that sense of obligation by
elders. Being more extraverted helps seniors to retain good mood and stay active
and connected to others.
A Changing Social World
 Social Theories of Aging
o Disengagement Theory- the idea that social interaction declines because
of mutual withdrawal between elders and society in anticipation of death.
But not everyone disengages.
o Activity theory is the theory that there are social barriers to engagement,
not just the desires of elders to disengage. Offering older adults
opportunities for social contact does not guarantee greater sociability.
o Socioemotional Selectivity Theory states that social networks become
more selective as we age. People limit their contacts to familiar partners
with whom they have the most rewarding relationships.
 Social Contexts: Communities, Neighborhoods, and Housing
o Communities and Neighborhoods- elders living in the suburbs are better
off in terms of income and health, but elders in inner cities have greater
access to social services. Those in small towns have the least access.
Elders in small communities report greater life satisfaction.
o Aging, Time Perception, and Social Goals
o Victimization and Fear of Crime – those elders who live alone or in
inner-city areas suffer with fears of criminal victimization. It restricts their
activities and undermines morale.
o Housing arrangements
 Ordinary Homes offer seniors the greatest personal control over
their lives. When health and mobility problems appear, living
alone presents safety issues, as well as financial difficulties.
 Residential communities are designed to offer elders as much
safety and autonomy as is possible. These centers also offer
recreational activities, transportation, & support services.
 Congregate housing offers common meals in a dining
room, as well as transportation and activities.
 Life care communities offer a variety of care- from
independent or congregate housing to full nursing care.
When there is a sense of community, life satisfaction is
higher.
 Nursing homes represent the greatest restriction of
autonomy, but are necessary when family can no longer
care for the physical/ nursing needs of a senior. Social
interaction between residents is generally low, as language
is often impaired, as well as cognitive function.
Relationships in Late Adulthood
 Social convoy is a cluster of family members and friends who provide safety and
support. Some bonds become closer with age, others more distant, a few are
gained, and some drift away. Elders do try to maintain social networks of family
and friends to preserve security and life continuity.
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Marriage – marital satisfaction rises from middle to late adulthood if perceptions
of fairness in the relationship increase. If couples engage in joint leisure activities
and enjoy more positive communication, their relationships become more
satisfying.
Gay and Lesbian partnerships also report happy, highly fulfilling relationships
in later life.
Divorce and remarriage is more stressful for older than younger adults.
Remarriage rates are low in late adulthood, but those who do remarry seem to
create more stable relationships. Women suffer more financially in divorce late in
life. There is much less chance of women remarrying at this point in life.
Widowhood
o Adaptation to Widowhood varies according to age, social support, and
personality. Being widowed is somewhat easier later in life than earlier,
since it is more natural at the later stage in life. Those widows who
maintain social ties, have outgoing personalities, high self-esteem, and a
sense of self-efficacy in dealing with their needs have more positive
adjustments.
 Social support
 Senior centers
 Support groups
 Religious activities
 Volunteer activities
Never-Married, Childless Older Adults can develop alternative meaningful
relationships.
Siblings- Bonds with sisters are generally closer than those with brothers.
Siblings enjoy reminiscing as they enter later adulthood. This allows them to feel
a family continuity and harmony, as well as begin to put their lives into a
perspective as they naturally do a life review.
Friendships function to offer intimacy and companionship, acceptance, a link to
the larger community, and protection from the toll of loss- physical and
emotional. Women are more likely to have both intimate friends and secondary
friends- people who are acquaintances they do some activities with occasionally.
o Functions of Elder Friendships
 Intimacy and companionship
 Elderly women find acceptance
 Friendships link seniors to the larger community
 Friendships help protect elders from psychological
consequences of loss
o Characteristics of Elder Friendships
 Secondary friends
Relationships with Adult Children are important, as they exchange advice or
wisdom, even offering some direct assistance. It is important if assistance is
offered, though, that the elder maintain some means of reciprocation. Elders do
not like to feel indebted to adult children, as they don’t want to feel they cannot
take care of themselves.
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Relationships with Adult Grandchildren and Great-Grandchildren offer
elders a wider network of support. These are affectionate relationships, not so
much aid or support. Affection may decline as the elder ages, but they feel great
affection for adult grandchildren.
Elder Maltreatment may occur at the hands of family members, caretakers, or
friends. One of the most problematic situation is when there is a dependency
between the elder and caregiver. Often the perpetrator is financially dependent on
the elder and resents the person for that dependency. There are also problems in
overcrowded institutions that are not sufficiently supervised.
o Forms
 Physical abuse
 Physical neglect
 Psychological abuse
 Financial abuse
o Risk factors
 Dependency of the victim
 Dependency of the Perpetrator
 Psychological disturbance and stress of the perpetrator
 History of family violence
 Institutional conditions
o Prevention includes elder-abuse prevention programs that offer caregivers
counseling, education and respite services. There are trained volunteers
and support groups that help them avoid future harm. Public education
also encourages reporting of suspected abuse.
Retirement and Leisure
 Decision to retire depends on affordability, health status, opportunities to pursue
meaningful activities, early retirement benefits, gender and ethnicity. Women
retire earlier than most men because of family demands. Those with poor
retirement benefits or who suffer poverty may need to continue working. This
especially affects African-Americans.
 Adjustment to Retirement is affected by health status, financial stability, sense
of personal control over life events, including the retirement decision,
characteristics of the work they did, satisfaction derived from work, social support
and marital happiness.
 Leisure Activities engaged in relate to physical and mental health, but they also
relate to reduced mortality. It is best to develop hobbies and interests and
volunteer activities before retirement that can be invested in more seriously after
retirement.
Successful aging occurs when elders have developed many ways to minimize losses and
maximize gains. Social contexts can foster successful aging. These are such things as
well-funded social security plans, good health care, safe housing that adjusts to changes
in elders’ needs, social services, opportunities for lifelong learning. Better in-home help,
adapted housing and sensitive nursing home care could make a difference in aging, too.