Dr. Katherine Heenan
English 472
Spring 2007
Herrick Notes
Herrick, James. A History and Theory of Rhetoric: An Introduction. 3rd edition. New York: Allyn and
Bacon, 2005
Chapter Four
Aristotle on Rhetoric
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entered Plato’s Academy around age 17
joined an intellectual circle that “included some of the most eminent philosophers and scientists of
the age” (73).
began his career as an orthodox Platonist
continued Plato’s battle with the sophists
was critical of rhetoric early in his career but turned toward more careful study
prolific writer—estimates he wrote as many as 550 books
only a fraction of his work survives—most notably, the Rhetoric
there he set out a “systematic course in rhetoric for the benefit of his more advanced students and
in an effort to legitimate the study of rhetoric in his school
much of his theory is a response to Plato’s criticisms and to sophistic treatises on rhetoric
Aristotle’s Definitions of Rhetoric
 book presents some problems for scholars
 early manuscripts are derived from students’ notes rather than from Aristotle’s own writings
 some scholars believe an entire additional book (on humor?) may have been lost
 Book I—defines and establishes domain of rhetoric and describes 3 types or oratory
 Book II—discusses rhetorical proofs derived from character and emotion
 Book III—focuses on matters of style and arrangement
Rhetoric and Dialectic
 Aristotle asserts that “rhetoric is the counterpart of dialectic”
 dialectic discussed in Aristotle’s Topics
 “by asserting that rhetoric is the counterpart to the techne of dialectic, Aristotle answers his
teacher’s claim that rhetoric is a mere analogy to the knack of cooking. Aristotle understood
dialectic as a logical method of debating issues of general interest, starting from widely accepted
propositions” (75).
 dialectic resolved foundational questions in philosophy
 “rhetoric and dialectic both begin with commonly held opinions, and addresses a wide range of
questions. However, rhetoric employs proofs dialectic avoids—proofs from character and emotion”
(75)
 public speech typical form of rhetoric—addressed to a large, general audience
 dialectic is more private and addressed at small, trained group
 Dialectic was a logical method of debating issues of general interest, starting from widely accepted
propositions.
 Dialectic was often employed for resolving foundational questions in philosophy, but the dialectical
method was also useful for resolving a range of issues.
 Dialectic allowed one to reason on both sides of a question, and thus assisted discovery of
knowledge.
 Rhetoric is similar to dialectic in that it employs commonly held opinions as starting points for
argument, and in that it is not limited to a specific class of questions.
 However, rhetoric develops proofs of a type not found in dialectic—proofs from character and
emotion—and it is useful in resolving practical issues of public significance, like those which arise in
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the political and judicial arenas.
Dialectic is typically a matter of briefly stated questions and relatively brief answers, and its typical
argument is the syllogism.
by calling rhetoric a counterpart to dialectic, Aristotle hoped to distinguish it from sophistry
In Gorgias, Plato criticized rhetoric as a kind of trickery, or a mere knack of persuasion. Aristotle, on
the other hand, defined rhetoric as a techne, or true art. Rhetoric was, for him, "the faculty
(dunamis) of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion." Whereas Plato had
only hinted at the possibility of a true art of rhetoric in Phaedrus, in Rhetoric, Aristotle set out a
systematic course in rhetoric. Aristotle avoided the moralizing tone of Plato, and approached
rhetoric in a pragmatic and scientific way.
Rhetoric as Techne
 Aristotle defines rhetoric as a practical and systematic art, or techne
 defines rhetoric’s domain as discovering “the available means of persuasion—a function not the
domain of any other art
 i.e., rhetoric has its own purpose and goals
Why Rhetoric is Useful
 Aristotle offers 4 reasons for rhetoric’s usefulness
o if all things were equal, true and just ideas would prevail on their own; however, since
that is not the case, ideas need to advocacy of rhetoric
o offers instruction in how to adapt ideas to an audience, all of whom are not easily
instructed
o offers debate on “other-side” of issue
o is a non-violent means of self-defense
The Enthymeme
 Aristotle calls the enthymema or enthymeme "a sort of syllogism."
 A syllogism is a deductive argument moving from a general premise to a specific and necessary
conclusion.
 Rhetoric is constructed of arguments involving premises shared by the speaker and audience.
 That is, an enthymeme depends on a previous agreement about a belief, a value, or preference.
 "Enthymeme" literally means "held in the mind," and enthymemes have at least one reason or claim
which both the speaker and members of the audience believe or hold in common.
 So clear is the agreement on the shared claim that it might not even be stated in the speech itself.
 Thus, the enthymeme is constructed or completed by rhetor and audience at the same time.
 Rhetoric in any settings is characterized by enthymemes.
Three Rhetorical Settings
 Three kinds of speech--determined by the situation
 deliberative or political speech--intended to recommend a future course of action
 epideictic or ceremonial--intended to praise or blame a current state of affairs
 forensic or legal--intended to provoke judgment concerning past action
Artistic Proofs
 an "artistic proof" was a means of persuasion or "proof" that belonged to the study or "art" of
rhetoric.
 Aristotle contrasted these to "inartistic proofs," or means of persuasion--documents, for example-about which rhetoric offered no instruction.
 three artistic proofs, or proofs taught specifically by the art of rhetoric, are
o logical reasoning (logos),
o the names and causes of various human emotions (pathos), and
o human character and goodness (ethos). Thus, like these other arts, rhetoric has its own
subject matter: these three means of persuasion.
 Logos refers to proofs available in the words, arguments, or logic of a speech. It was the largely
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the study of arguments.
Pathos is the psychology of emotion, or "putting the audience in the right frame of mind."
Pathos is more than emotional appeals; it is an interest in emotion's ability to affect the judgment of
audiences.
Ethos refers to the persuasive potential of the speaker's own character or credibility.
This proof develops from what the speaker says in the course of a speech, and is not imported on
the basis of prior reputation with the audience.
The components of ethos are phronesis (practical sense), arete (virtue), and eunoia (goodwill).
Terminology
1. eudaimonia: The Greek term for human well being or happiness, the goal of deliberative oratory.
2. apologia: The Greek term for making an argument of defense, one of two functions of forensic
oratory.
3. koinoi topoi: The Greek term for Aristotle's universal lines of argument or common topics;
arguments and strategies useful in any of the three types of oratorical settings.
4. ethos: The study of human character, one of the three artistic proofs.
5. logos: The study of arguments, one of Aristotle's three artistic proofs
6. pathos: The study of the psychology of emotion, one of Aristotle's three artistic proofs.
7. arête: Virtue, discussed as one component of ethos.
8. artistic proofs: Proofs taught specifically by the art of rhetoric--logos, pathos, and ethos
9. dialectic: A method of reasoning from common opinions, directed by established principles of
reasoning to probable conclusions.
10. enthymeme: A rhetorical syllogism, or a rhetorical argument based on a premises shared by
speaker and audience.
11. epideictic or ceremonial oratory: The kind of speaking characteristic of public ceremonies such
as funerals or events commemorating war heroes.
12. phronesis: or good sense, discussed as one component of ethos