GRAMMAR
Clauses
Clauses are the main structures used to compose sentences. A sentence will be
made up of at least one MAIN CLAUSE (a clause that makes sense on its own
and that is not dependent on or part of another clause); it may also contain one
or more SUBORDINATE CLAUSE (a clause that cannot stand on its own and
that is dependent on the main clause).
Clause Elements
There are five types of clause element and each has a different function and
position within the clause.
1. Subject
The subject normally describes the person who or thing which does the action of
the verb. It is also called the actor of a sentence. You can check which part of
the clause is a subject by asking who? or what? is responsible for the action or
process of the verb.
 Kinds of subject
The subject is usually a noun phrase or a pronoun, but it can also be a clause.
S
S
(The girl) was a good swimmer.
NP
det
N
FUNCTION
(She) was a good swimmer
NP
pron
S
FUNCTION
(What I look forward to) is a restful Christmas
Cl
FORM
 Position in the clause
The subject usually precedes the verb in a statement
S
(The whole family) went to town.
 Position in a question
The subject follows the auxiliary verb in a question.
S
Did (the girl) go to town?
FORM
 Effect on the verb
The subject dictates the form of the verb.
S
S
(I) go to town.
(The old lady) goes to town.
 Effect on the object or complement
The subject sometimes controls the form of the object or complement in a
sentence.
S
S
(She) cut herself. (They) cut themselves.
2. Verb
Verbs can express a range of meanings – actions, processes, states and so on.
They are the most important clause element: they cannot be omitted, except in
a minor sentence.
Like father, like son.
Only a verb phrase can fill the verb site of a clause.
I should go to town.
3. Object
The object describes something that is directly affected by the verb. You can
check which part of a clause is in the direct object site by asking who? or what?
is affected by the action or process of the verb.
Od
The dog ate (the bone)
 Indirect object
The object can also be something that is indirectly affected by the verb.
Usually an indirect object will precede the direct object, but it may instead
follow the direct object. You can check whether an object is indirect by placing
it after the direct object and putting to before it.
Oi
Od
Od
Oi
The child gave (her friend)(a present). The child gave (a present)(to her friend).
 Kinds of Object
The object is usually a noun phrase or a pronoun. If the object is a pronoun, it
may have a distinctive form.
Od
Oi
The rain soaked (the boy). The rain soaked (him).
Oi
Od
He gave (the visitors) a cup of tea. He gave (them) a cup of tea.
 Position in the clause
The object usually follows the verb.
4. Complement
The complement gives extra information about the subject or about the object.
Cs
The sun was (bright).
Co
The teacher considered his pupil (a genius).
 Kinds of complement
The complement can be an adjective phrase, a noun phrase, a pronoun, a numeral
or a clause.
Cs
Cs
The book is (his).
The old lady was (ninety).
pron
num
FUNCTION
FORM
 Position in the clause
The complement usually follows a verb (appear, seem, become, be).
Cs
The man felt (gloomy).
Cs
The garden had become (overgrown).
5. Adverbials
Adverbials give information about time, manner and place. You can check which
part of a clause is an adverbial by asking questions like how?, when?, where?, and
how often?
 Kind of adverbials
Adverbials can be adverb phrases, prepositional phrases, noun phrases or
clauses.
A
A
A
A
FUNCTION
They went (to town) (yesterday). They went (to town) (on Saturdays).
PrepP
AdvP
A
PrepP
A
PrepP
A
FORM
A
They went (to town) (last week). They went (to town) (when it rained).
PrepP
NP
PrepP
Cl
FUNCTION
FORM
 Number of adverbials
More than one adverbial can be added to a clause.
A
A
A
(Twice a week) the boy ran (to his grandmother’s house)(for tea).
NP
PrepP
PrepP
FUNCTION
FORM
 Position in the clause
An adverbial can change its position in order to create different kinds of
emphasis.
A
A
A
(Actually), we went (to the library)(on Mondays).
A
A
A
On (Mondays), we (actually) went (to the library).
Clause Structure
Most clauses will have a subject and a verb. Other clause elements are optional
and will be used depending upon the information and the kind of verb selected.
It is useful to distinguish between the form or word class of a verb and the
grammatical role or function of a verb phrase in a clause. In clause analysis,
therefore, linguists call the verb site the predicator
Clause Types
There are seven types of clause, in which the elements are combined in
different ways.
 Subject + verb
S
P
(They) (voted)
 Subject + verb + direct object
S
P
Od
(They) (ate) (dinner)
 Subject + verb + indirect object + direct object
S
P
Oi
Od
(Father Christmas) (gave) (each child) (a present)
 Subject + verb + subject complement
S
P
Cs
(Snow) (is) (disruptive)
 Subject + verb + direct object + object complement
S
P
Od
Co
(The government) (considered) (its election promises) (inappropriate)
 Subject + verb + adverbial
S
P
A
(You) (must not go) (near the derelict house)
 Subject + verb + direct object + adverbial
S
P
Od
A
(They) (packed) (their bags) (for school)