Types of sentences according to the aim of communication.
The sentence is a minimal unit of communication. From the viewpoint of their role
in the process of communication sentences are divided into 4 types: declarative,
interrogative, imperative, exclamatory. These types differ in the aim of
communication and express statements, questions, commands and exclamations
respectively. Dickens was born in 1812. Come up and sit down. What a quiet
evening! A declarative sentence contains a statement which gives the reader or the
listener some information about various events, activities or attitudes, thoughts and
feelings. A statement may be positive (affirmative) or negative, as in: I have just
come back from a business trip. I haven't seen my sister yet. Interrogative
sentences contain questions. Their communicative function consists in asking for
information. They belong to the sphere of conversation and only occasionally occur
in monological speech. All varieties of questions may be structurally reduced to two
main types, general questions (also called "yes-no" questions) and pronominal
questions (otherwise called "special" or "wh"-questions). In general questions
the speaker is interested to know whether some event or phenomenon asked about
exists or does not exist. A general question opens with a verb operator, that is, an
auxiliary, modal or link verb followed by the subject. Is that girl a friend of yours?
Can you speak French? A tag question is a short "yes-no" question added to a
statement. It consists only of an operator prompted by the predicate verb of the
statement and a pronoun prompted by the subject. George is a football fan, isn't
he? You know French, don't you? An alternative question implies a choice
between two or more alternative answers. The conjunction or links either two
homogeneous parts of the sentence or two coordinate clauses. Will you go to the
opera or to the concert to-night? Which do you prefer, tea or coffee? Suggestive
questions (declarative) keep the word order of statement but serve as questions
owing to the rising tone in speaking: You still don't believe me, sir? So you knew
about it before? Pronominal questions open with an interrogative pronoun or a
pronominal adverb, the function of which is to get more detailed and exact
information about some event or phenomenon known to the speaker and listener.
The interrogative pronouns and adverbs: what, which, who, whom, whose, where,
when, why, how: Whose team has won the match? Which story did you like best?
Who came first? A rhetorical question contains a statement disguised as a
question, which is usually positive hiding a negative statement. No answer is
expected. What else could I do? Do we always act as we ought to? Imperative
sentences express commands which convey the desire of the speaker to make
someone, generally the listener, perform an action. Besides they may express
prohibition, a request, an invitation, a warning, persuasion, depending on the
situation, context or intonation. Stand up! Sit down. Open your textbooks. Be
quick! Exclamatory sentence. Each of the communicative sentence types, besides
performing their main communicative function, may serve as exclamations. You do
look a picture of health! (statement) Hurry up! (command). An exclamation as a
sentence type opens with one of the pronominal words what and how. What refers
to a noun, how to an adjective or an adverb. What a terrible noise! What a funny
story she told us!
Indefinite Article
The article is a form-word which functions as a noun determiner. There are 2
articles in English: indefinite and definite. There are two variants of this article: "a"
(before consonants),"an" (before vowels). By origin the IA is a numeral in the
meaning "one". That's why it occurs only before nouns in the singular. It has 3
functions: 1. Classifying, in which it means "one of (the like)",Henгу is a student.
My father was still a busv man. 2. Generalising, in which it means "any". A tiger is
a dangerous animal. = Any tiger is a dangerous animal. 3. Numerical, in which it
means "one" (this is its original meaning). Wait a minute. Be back in a second.
Have a word with Leo. The IA is used only in the singular. In the plural such nouns
are used without any article: There were books on the shelves. In English the
nouns "advice, information, fun, luck, news, weather" are never used with the IA.
In speech the IA most often introduces the referent of its noun into the situation of
speech for the first time: A nurse was coming from the first tent. Emily shouts from
the house that I have a visitor. IA is used: 1. When the referent of the noun is
mentioned for the first time: From a hill he saw the city. 2. Before predicative class
nouns (without any specification): You are a fine child. It is an American coin. 3. In
the generalizing meaning (here in its meaning the article is near to the pronoun
"'any"): A sentence is a language unit. A horse with a broken leg cannot run. 4.
With abstract or material nouns preceded by descriptive attributes denoting special
aspects or concrete instances of the notion or special kinds of the referents denoted
by material nouns: It was a cold autumn. It was a very rare book.5. In its original
numerical meaning of "one”: I’ll wait a minute. 6. with singular class nouns in
exclamatory sentences beginning with "what": What a lovely picture it is! 7. with
personal names: when a person is one of the family, clan: he was a Burton before
his marriage; when the name is preceded by the adjective “certain” or if the
referent is indefinite: A certain Mrs. Smith rang me up today. She was a Miss
Crawford
Definite article.
The article is a form-word which functions as a noun determiner. There are 2
articles in English: indefinite and definite. By origin this article is a demonstrative
pronoun with the meaning "that". Sometimes it occurs in a demonstrative meaningeven at present: I had no idea what the future held and at the time I did not care.
It has 2 functions: 1. Individualizing (meaning "this definite), in which it shows a
noun whose referent is known or definite in the situation of speech: The person I
saw today was an old friend. Our apartment was on the first floor. 2. Generic
(meaning "the whole class of), in which it is used before a singular noun indicating
the whole class of objects, denoted by this noun: The lion is a wild animal from
Africa. The DA is used in the individualizing function before nouns whose referents
are definite. They are made definite by: 1. a restrictive (limiting) attribute or a
restrictive attributive clause. We arrived at the house in which I lived. Where is
the book I bought this morning. 2. the preceding context: Oliver opened the door
and looked around, but could not see a big boy. "Do you know who I am?" asked
the boy. "No, sir", replied Oliver. 3. the situation of speech: Mary sprang up and
rushed to the door (of the room where Mary was). 4. the meaning of the noun
(which takes place only in the case with nouns denoting unique objects): The sun
rises in the West. The Earth is a planet. Тhе Moon and Sixpence. DA is used: 1.
When the person, thing, event, etc. (referent) is already mentioned in the given
situation of speech: Yesterday he wrote a letter. A girl entered the room. 2. When
any noun is modified by a restrictive attribute or a restrictive attributive clause: I’ll
never forget the town in which I was born. 3. When the situation of speech itself
makes the referent definite: Go to the blackboard (in the classroom). 4. before the
names of unique referents: the sun, the moon, the sky, the world, the universe, the
earth. 5. with nouns preceded by adjectives in the superlative degree, the pronoun
"same", the adjectives “proper", "right". "wrong”: It was the happiest day in his
life. He had taken the wrong tone. 6. With personal names: with personal names in
the plural, denoting a whole family: The Davidsons lived in the next house. 7. with
the names of historical events: the Renaissance. 8. Names of buildings, hotels,
restaurants: the Tower, The Hermitage, the Kremlin. 9. Names of ships,
newspapers, clubs, organizations: the Titanic, the United Nations, the Times. 10.
with geographical names: a) names of four cardinal points: the east, west, south,
north; b) groups of islands, deserts, mountain chains, names of rivers, lakes, seas,
oceans, channels: The Baltic Sea, The Atlantic Ocean, the Thames, the Alps, the
English Channel. c) Names of some countries and provinces: the Crimea, the
Netherlands, the Argentine.
Absence of the article
The most typical cases of the absence of articles are: 1. Before plural nouns if
the corresponding singular noun is used with the IA: John is a student. - John
and Mary are students. A dog barks. - Dogs bark. The bare plural form
corresponds to the classifying and generalizing uses of the IA and to the generic
use of the DA: A man who has nothing to say has no words. - Men who have
nothing to say have no words. The tiger lives in the jungle. - Tigers live in the
jungle. 2. Before non-count abstract and mass (material) nouns used in the most
general sense: We walked forward in silence. Life isn't all fun. He has such huge
pride. Light travels much faster than sound. Besides, the nouns "man" and
"woman" are used without any article in the generic meaning: Man is a hunter:
woman is his game. Used: 1. with the names of some diseases: appendicitis,
fever, malaria, typhoid.2. With nouns denoting titles, rank, dignity, relationship
and used as appositions: Lord Byron, Sir Walter Scott, Aunt Molly, Miss Garnet.
3. With personal names preceded by the adjectives young, old, little, poor, dear,
honest which have emotional coloring and are parts of the proper names: Old
Jolyon goes to the opera. Little Francie, as she was usually called, was an
important personage. 4. With predicative and appositive nouns denoting unique
positions, posts: Hi is rector of Moscow Universal. Academician Marchuk is
President of the Academy of sciences. 5. With nouns denoting dignity, title,
post, when they follow the head-nouns in appositive of-phrase: He was awarded
the title of hero. He occupied the post of Minister of education. 6. With
predicative nouns introduced by the conjunction "as", e.g. Mr. Davidsont will act
as referee. 7. Before nouns followed by the adverb "enough”: Peter began to
fear that he was not man enough to get and hold a job. 8. With the nouns
school, college, bed, prison, jail, hospital, church, when they lose their concrete
meanings and express the purpose for which their referents serve: He’s in
hospital. She was the best at college. They may send me to prison for that. They
go to church every week.9. With the names of towns and cities (the only
exception is "the Hague"), a majority of countries, peninsulas, separate islands,
mountain peaks: London, France, Germany, Florida, Madagascar, Elbrus.
Conjunctive, Relative, Interrogative, “one”.
Interrogative pronouns. These pronouns are who, whose, what, which.
Who is a noun-pronoun, whose is an adjective-pronoun, what and which are
both noun- and adjective-pronouns. Who has the grammatical category of case
(nominative and objective). Besides, strange as it may seem, we occasionally
encounter who's for whose: The prosecutor made a detailed analysis of the
disturbance; who hit whom, who stepped on who’s foot. Thus, the pronoun
who is a single pronoun which has three case forms. Who, whom, and whose
ask questions about persons. Who is used when the question word is the
subject of the verb. Who’s coming to your party? (a number of guests). There is
a strong tendency to replace whom by who. The difference between who and
what and which is that which presupposes choice while the others commonly
do not: Which is the better of those two? Conjunctive pronouns. They are the
same pronouns as interrogative but used to introduce subject, predicate, object
and appositive clauses: What she was afraid of was not easy to explain. Ask
him which he wants. Conjunctive pronouns have the same grammatical
categories as the interrogative ones. Relative pronouns. They are that, who,
whose, which, as, used to introduce attributive relative clauses: But the few
years that separated us were wider than an ocean. That’s the man whose house
was burned down. As correlates with the pronouns same and such in the main
clause: Dead there on the slope on such a day as this is. Only who changes:
has the category of case. The prop-word "one”. It is used to avoid the
repetition of a noun already mentioned. It has the grammatical category оf
number: Are those your books? I want to borrow a good one/some good ones
on gardening. One can be preceded by the definite article, nouns,
demonstratives, adjectives, ordinal numerals: this wool suit is a good one. You
sit in that chair and I’ll sit in this one. On the other hand, the prop-word one
cannot be preceded by a noun in possessive case, cardinal numerals, the
indefinite pronouns some, аnу, the adjectives several and 'own'.
Pronouns Reciprocal, Possessive, Demonstrative, Reflexive, Personal
Are notional words which indicate objects and their properties without
indicating them, He rose. Many have come. Some did not do it, where the
subjects are not named. There are several classifications of English pronouns.
The present one was suggested by Prof. Blokh. According to it English pronouns
fall into several classes: 1. Personal, 2. Possessive, 3. Demonstrative, 4.
Reflexive, 5. Reciprocal, 6. Indefinite, 7. Interrogative, 8. Conjunctive, 9.
Relative, 10. The prop-word "one". Personal pronouns have a single purely
grammatical category -- case. The cases are nominative and objective. The
case forms are: nominative – (I, he, she, It, we, you, they), objective – (me,
him, her, it, us. vou, them respectively). Personal pronouns are nounpronouns, they occupy the position of nouns: John did it – He did it, I saw John
– I saw him. Nominative case forms are usual here if they are followed by
attributive clauses: For once it was she who lowered her eyes. According to M.
West's statement, nominative case forms are inevitable in such cases. But
objective case forms are quite possible here too: It’s me he’s interested in.
Possessive pronouns have no purely grammatical categories. There are two
kinds of their forms: conjoint, which are used, as adjective-pronouns (my, his,
her, its, our, your, their) and absolute, which are noun-pronouns (mine, his,
hers, its, ours, yours, theirs): He left his hand on mine. Where’s your book? Is
this hat yours? Demonstrative pronouns are this, that, same, such. This and
that have the category of number, which can be called grammatical with
reservation. Sing. this, that PI. these, those. This (these), that (those) and
same are both noun- and adjective-pronouns: Read this. That’s just it (n.-p.).
That train never does arrive on time (adj.-p.). Reflexive pronouns (selfpronouns). They are noun pronouns: myself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves,
yourselves, themselves, oneself. They have no purely grammatical categories
(only yourselves is built up purely grammatically: yourself-yourselves).
Ganshina and Vasilevskaya divide self-pronouns into two separate classes:
reflexive and emphatic. But Prof. Blokh, points out an emphatic meaning of
reflexive pronouns in some cases of their use: I had myself seen a charming
picture quite to me taste. Reciprocal pronouns. They are composites, two in
number: each other and one another. They function only as noun-pronouns and
have the grammatical category of case (common, possessive, genitive):
common-The three gentlemen looked at one another; possessive case-we dine
in one another’s houses. Some people like to say each other about 2 people or
things, and one another about more than 2, but this is not a fixed rule.
Predicate. Simple verbal.
The predicate is the second principal (main) part of the sentence and its
organizing centre, as the object and nearly all adverbial modifiers are connected
with and dependent on it. The predicate may be considered from the semantic or
from the structural point of view. According to the meaning of its components,
the predicate may denote an action, a state, a quality, or an attitude to some
action or state ascribed to the subject. From the structural point of view there
are two main types of predicate: simple and compound. Both these types may
be either nominal or verbal, which gives four sub-groups: simple verbal, simple
nominal, compound verbal, compound nominal.
The simple verbal predicate is expressed by: 1. A verb in a synthetic or analytical
form. John runs quickly. I was sent in to get my tea. Don't come too late. 2. A
verbal phrase (a phraseological equivalent of a verb denoting one action). a)
Phrases denoting momentaneous actions: to have a look, to have a talk, to give
a look, to make a move, to make a remark, to pay a visit, etc. Did you have a
sleep'? It's time we were making a move. b) Phrases denoting various kinds of
actions. In most cases they comprise an abstract noun used with no article: to
change one's mind, to get rid (of), to make fun (of), to make up one's mind, to
take care (of), to take part (in). I have never taken much interest in German
songs.
Pronouns Indefinite
Have an inner classification of their own. They are subdivided into: 1) indefinite
proper, 2) distributive, 3) negative 4) quantitative. Indefinite proper are some,
somebody, someone, something, any, anybody, anyone, anything and one in the
meaning "some": I saw her one day. One John came to see you. Some and any are
both noun- and adjective-pronouns, one is only an adjective-pronoun. The
compounds with them are only noun-pronouns. Those with -body and -one have
the category of case (common, possessive, genitive). Commonly some and
compounds with it occur in affirmative sentences. But their use is possible in
interrogative sentences, firstly, when the question does not refer to the pronouns,
that is, when the sentence expresses rather an offer or request: Would you like to
have some coffee? Can I have some of those nuts?, secondly when the pronouns
imply previous knowledge: Do you know something? Can I ask you something?
Distributive are: all, every, everybody, everyone (every one) everything, each
(one), both, either, another, other. The pronouns all, each, both, either, another,
other are both noun- and adjective-pronouns, every is only an adjective-pronoun,
the compounds with every and each are only noun-pronouns. Another has the
grammatical category of case (common, possessive, genitive). Other has the
grammatical categories of number and case: She’s cleverer than any of the others.
The main difference between every(body) and each (one) is that the former occurs
when the members of a group have something in common, whereas the latter
denoting the same draws attention to some point of difference between them: On
each side of him walked a beautiful girl. Each one talked to his neighbor. Both
implies two persons or things. It functions both as a noun-pronoun and as
adjective-pronoun: Both are well. We can do both this things. Both doesn’t occur in
negative sentences. Either also implies two persons or things, but unlike both, is
followed by a singular noun and verb: I doubt if either of them is coming. They
walked on either side of the girl. Negative are no, nobody, no one, none, nothing,
neither. Neither, like either, is both a noun- and adjective-pronoun, applied to two
persons and things only and is normally followed by a singular noun or verb:
Neither of these cars is what I want. Neither picture is satisfactory. None is a nounpronoun only, it is applied to more than two persons or things or to a complete
absence of them: None of my problems are solved. None of them were present at
the meeting. No is an adjective-pronoun only, nobody, nothing and no one are
noun-pronouns. Nobody and no one have the grammatical category of case
(common, genitive or possessive): nobody’s fool. Quantitative are many, much,
(a) few, (a) little. All of them are both noun- and adjective-pronouns. Many and (a)
few are used with counts and much and (a) little with uncounts. In common with
adjectives quantitative pronouns have the grammatical category of comparison. For
this reason some grammarians do not include them in pronouns.
Category of number
English nouns that are inflected for number have singular and plural forms. S.
denotes one, plural denotes more than one. Most count nouns are variable and can
occur with either singular or plural number. The plural form is marked by the
inflexion - (e) s. Regular plurals: 1. N. ending in vowels and voiced consonants
have the plural ending pronounced as [z]: bee - bees, dog - dogs. 2. N. ending in
voiceless consonants have a voiceless ending: book - books. 3. N. ending in -s, -sh,
-ss, -ch, -x, -z have the ending [iz]: actress -actresses, bush - bushes, watch watches, box - boxes. 4. N. ending in -o have the ending [z]: hero -heroes, potato
– potatoes. The regular plural inflexion of nouns in -o has two spellings; -os occurs
in the following cases: a) after a vowel — bamboos, embryos, folios, kangaroos,
radios, studios, zoos; b) in proper names - Romeos, Eskimos, Filipinos; c) in
abbreviations, kilos, photos; In other cases the spelling is -oes: tomatoes,
dominoes, heroes, potatoes.5. The letter -y after a consonant usually changes into
-i: sky – skies But the letter -y remains unchanged -ys: a) after vowels: days. b) in
proper names: the two Germanys. 6. Thirteen nouns ending-in -f (e) form their
plural changing -f (e) into -v (e): the ending in this case is pronounced (z]:calf –
calves, life - lives, thief - thieves, elf - elves, loaf-loaves, wife – wives, half –
halves, self - selves, wolf - wolves, knife – knives, sheaf - sheaves (снопы), leaf –
leaves, shelf – shelves. Other nouns ending in -f(e) have the plural inflexion -s in
the regular way: proof -proofs, chief- chiefs, safe - safes, cliff- cliffs. 7. The plural
of nouns ending in “th” – the plural ending in this case is – s: month – months,
heart – hearts. Irregular plurals. 1. Seven nouns distinguish plural from singular
by vowel change: man-men, woman-women, louse-lice, tooth-teeth, foot-feet,
goose-geese, mouse-mice. 2. two nouns have –en to mark the plural: ox-oxen,
child-children. 3. with some nouns the plural is identical with the singular form: a)
sheep-sheep, swine-swine, deer-deer. There are some animal names that have 2
plurals: fish-fish(es), carp-carp(s), salmon-salmon(s). b) identical singular and
plural forms are also typical of nationality nouns in –ese, -ss: Chinese, Swiss,
Japanese. c) names, indicating number: pair, couple, dozen, score, stone, head.
Category of case.
Case is a grammatical category which shows relation of the noun with other words
in a sentence. It is expressed by the form of the noun. English nouns have two
cases: the common case and the genitive case. However, not all English nouns
possess the category of case; there are certain nouns, mainly nouns denoting
inanimate objects, which cannot be used in the genitive case. The common case is
unmarked, it has no inflexion (zero) and its meaning is very general. The genitive
case is marked by the apostrophe s ('s). In writing there are two forms of the
genitive: for most nouns:‘s (mother's) and for nouns ending in -s and regular plural
nouns only the apostrophe (mothers'). In speech there are four ways of
pronunciation of the genitive case: 1. [z] after vowels and voiced consonants
Negro's. Dog’s. 2. [s| after voiceless consonants: student's. 3. [iz] after sibilants
prince’s. 4. Zero endings: girls', boys'. The zе г о form is used: a) with regular
plural nouns: students', drivers', doctors'. b) Some diseases: measles, mumps. c)
some games – billiards, bowls, dominoes, draught. d) Some proper nouns: Athens,
Marseilles, Brussels, Wales. e) nouns ending in –ics: phonetics, physics, politics,
statistics, gymnastics.
Sentence
A sentence is a unit of speech which grammatical structure conforms to the laws of
the language and which serves as the chief means of conveying a more or less
complete thought. Structure of simple S.: two-member (has two principal parts: a
sub and pred. It can be complete-has a sub and pred: the sun is shining;
incomplete-one or both principal parts are missing: where were you yesterday? At
the cinema) one-member (has only one principal part which is neither the sub nor
the pred. It can be nominal-the principal part is expressed by a noun: Dusty water;
verbal –principal parts are expressed by verbals: living at the mercy of a woman)
extended (she is a student) and unexpended (Mary is always happy with you)
semi-composite sentence: semi-compound (has homogeneous sub or pred: a
black and a white cat sat on the roof) and semi-complex (complicated by
predicative constructions: the breakfast being over, the children went to school).
Subject
Is one of the main parts of two-member sentence denoting the thing on the
broadest sense of the word whose action, state, property are characterized by the
pred. It is independent of any other part of sentence: according to the structure
simple, phrasal, complex; according to the way of expressing notional, formal
(by introductory it, there); according to the way of expressing and grammatical
meaning simple subs are personal (definite: The unbelievable happened; I shall do
the best I can; Nothing can be done about it; Seven cannot be divided into two; To
understand is to forgive; Talking mends no holes; His “How do you do» never
sounds cordial enough. indefinite: They say this is a terribly difficult place to work
in. generalized: One has one’s dignity), impersonal (it only). It as a sub: 1.
Notional definite personal sub: He didn’t even hear the doorbell till it had been
ringing for some time. 2. Notional definite personal demonstrative sub:
Somebody knocked at the door. It was Tom. 3. Formal impersonal sub: Captain
looked at his watch, it was five to three. 4. Formal introductory: It must take a
lot to annoy you. 5. Formal emphatic: It was Joe Mennan who filled her mind.
Complex sub: 1. The nominative with the infinitive: Alice did not seem to have
heard me. 2. Foe-to-infinitive construction: It is important for you to know it. 3.
Participial construction: The problem is considered solved. 4. Gerundial
construction: It is absurd our hardly knowing each other.
Object
Is the secondary part of sentence completing the meaning of the part of the
sentence expressed by a verb, an adjective or a stative: simple and complex:
direct (denotes a direct receiver or product of the action denoted by a transitive
verb. If in a sentence there is only one non-prepositional object it is always
direct-I believe you); the indirect (denotes a person towards whom the action
of the verb is directed. it is always used with a direct or prepositional object ,it
can be non-prepositional when it follows the verb directly and precedes the direct
object-Adrian handed him his card; prepositional, when it follows the direct
object-She handed the note to Bart; with preposition for, to in the meaning of
person for whose benefit the action is done-He found a seat for George) the
cognate ( follows an intransitive verb and of the same root as the verb-I want
to live an ordinary life) the prepositional (certain verbs and adjectives govern
their objects by means of prepositions-what do you want from me?) complex
objects: infinitive construction (I should like him to be free); for-to-infinitive
construction (Emily waited for Jackson call on her); participial construction (I will
not have him worried); gerundial construction (he minded their knowing);
object+object predicative (I found him a bore)…. Formal object (expressed by it
correlating with a notional object-He found it impossible to utter the next word).
Adverbial clause
may classify the whole main clause, the verbal predicate, or any verbal part: of
place or direction (where, wherever, anywhere-he was standing where he
always had stood); of time characterizes the action in the clause from the
temporal point of view (CONJ: as, as soon as, when, after, until, since, before,
PHRASEL CONJ: the time, next time, directly, once-whenever there was a pause,
he gently asked again.) of manner modifies the action (as, the way - I am sorry
I talked the way I did at lunch) of comparison (CONJ: as, like, as if, as though,
than, as…as, so…as, as. as if - They didn’t have long intervals like they do at
other theatres.) condition - contains some condition, either real or unreal which
makes the action in the main clause possible (CONJ: unless, if, in case, provided
that, admitting, seeing - If anything troubles you you’d better tell me) of
concession (CONJ: ALTHOUGH, THOUGH, EVEN IF, THOUGH yet;
CONJ.PRON/ADVERBS whoever, whatever, whichever, whenever; CONJ.
PHRASE: for all that, In spite of the fact…-Although the weather was bad he went
for a walk)of purpose contains a planed action which is to be achieved by the
action in the main clause(CONJ: that, so that, so as, in order that-I tell all this so
that you may understand me perfectly) of cause express the reason cause and
motivation of the action in the main clause (CONJ: as, because, seeing that,
considering that; CONJ. PHRASES: for the reason that, in view of the fact that,
by reason of-Since there is no help let us try and bear it as best we can)
result(CONJ: so that, that-Light fell on her there so that Soams could see her
face).
Verb
Is a word that characteristically is the grammatical center of a predicate and
expresses an act, occurrence, or mode of being. Tense is a distinction of form in
a verb to express distinctions of time or duration of the action or state it denotes.
Mood is a distinction of verb to express whether the action or state it denotes is
conceived as fact command, possibility, or wish. 1. The Indicative represents
the denoted act or state as an objective fact. 2. The Imperative expresses the
will to influence the behavior of another. 3. The Subjunctive represents a
denoted act or state not as fact but as contingent or possible or viewed
emotionally (as with doubt or desire). It is used mainly in subordinate clauses.
When used in main clauses, it expresses a slight command, insistence or
invitation. The voice indicates the relation of the subject of the verb to the
action which the verb expresses. 1. The Active voice asserts that the person or
thing represented by the grammatical subject performs the action represented
by the verb; 2. The Passive voice asserts that the grammatical subject of a verb
is subjected to or affected by the action represented by that verb: 1. The
Infinitive performs some functions of a noun and at the same time displays some
characteristics of a verb like tense (present, future and perfect) and voice and
may have an object. 2. The Participle) is a word having the characteristics of
both adjective and verb. 3. The Gerund is a verbal noun that expresses
generalized or uncompleted action. It is a neuter verbal noun of II declension,
used in Singular only, without Nominative form.
Composite sentence.
It is a sentence consisting of two or more clauses. In its structure a clause is
similar to a simpe sentence, but unlike a s.s. it forms part of a bigger syntactical
unit. The 2 main types of connection of clauses in a composite sentence are
subordination and coordination. By coordination clauses are arranged as units of
syntactically equal rank, i.e. equipotently. The leading clause and a sequential
clause (He came and we had coffee. We had coffee and he came). By
subordination they are arranged as units of unequal rank, one being categorically
dominated by the other. Besides the classical types of coordination and
subordination of clauses, we find another case of construction of a composite
sentence. When the connection between the clauses combined in a
polypredicative unit is extremely loose, placing the sequential clause in a
syntactically detached position. In this loosely connected composite sentence the
information expressed by the sequential clause is presented as an afterthought,
an idea that comes to the speaker’s mind after the completion of the foregoing
utterance. This kind of connection is called cumulation. Its formal sign is the tone
of completion. In writing it is a semifinal mark, such as a semicolon, a dash,
sometimes a series of periods. Continuative cumulation: He did his job in the
office without any fuss; he answered questions in the House: he made a couple
of speeches. Parenthetical cumulation: Your story, you know, showed such
breadth and depth of thought.
Predicate Compound nominal.
Is the second primary part of the sentence that denotes an action, state or
property of the thing in the broadest sense expressed by the subject of the
sentence. The compound nominal predicate consists of a link-verb and a
nominal element called predicative. The predicative expresses a state, property
or the class of thing denoted by the subject: It's so lovely here. Oh! Friendship is
a great thing. According to their meaning link-verbs are classified into: a) the
link-verb of being', (the "pure" link-verb "be"): I'm a student. b) of perception
(feel, look, smell, taste): She looks happy. The cake tastes delicious. c) of
becoming (become, turn, grow, get, fall): It's getting late. He grew old. d) of
remaining (remain, stay, keep, continue). I stayed calm. He remained silent. e)
of seeming or appearing: (seem, appear) She seemed shy. He appeared a
good listener. A particular place is occupied by the link-verbs “prove” and “turn
out”: The party turned out a success. The simple predicative is expressed by:
1) nouns in both cases: The choice was hers. Friendship is a great thing. 2) by
adjectives: It’s so lovely here; 3) by pronouns: They were they and Marcus and I
were we. 4) by numerals: She was eighteen; 5) by statives: He was aware all
the time of her presence. But I'm afraid I can't keep the man. 6) by infinitives:
To decide is to act. 7) by gerunds: His aim was entering the University. 8) by
participles I, which are generally adjectivized: It is very destressing to me, sir,
to give this information. 9) by Participles II: It was all gone. The compound
nominal double predicate combines the features of two different types of
predicate. It has the features of the simple verbal predicate and those of the
compound nominal predicate. It consists of two parts, both of which are notional.
The first one is verbal and is expressed by a notional verb denoting an action or
process performed by the person/non-person expressed by the subject. From
this point of view it resembles the simple verbal predicate. But at the same time
the verbal part of this predicate performs a linking function, as it links its second
part (which is a predicative) to the subject. The second part of the compound
nominal double predicate is expressed by a noun or an adjective which denotes
the properties of the subject in the same way as the predicative of the
compound nominal predicate proper does. The moon was shining cold and
bright. The predicate here denotes two separate notions: 1) The moon was
shining, and at the same time 2) The moon was cold and bright. There are a
number of verbs that most often occur in this type of predicate, performing the
double function of denoting a process and serving as link verb at the same time.
They are: to die, to leave, to lie, to marry, to return, to rise, to sit, to stand, to
shine.
NOMINAL CLAUSES
All nominal clauses have a function approximating to that of a noun or a nominal
phrase. They may fulfill the function of a basic part of the main clause: a subject
clause functions as subject of the main clause which has no subject of its own, a
predicative clause functions as predicative to the link verb within the main clause.
An object clause refers to verbs in different forms and functions, to adjectives,
statives and occasionally to nouns, and may be obligatory or optional. Another type
of nominal clause — the appositive clause, refers to a noun with a very general
meaning and is therefore essential to the meaning of the sentence. Since nominal
clauses function as essential structural parts of the sentence, their relations to the
main clause are confined to such purely grammatical sentential relations as
subjective, predicative, objective and appositive. A subject clause may be
introduced by conjunctions (that, if, whether, because, the way); correlatives
(either... or, whether... or) it there is more than one subject clause, or connectives.
The latter may be either conjunctive pronouns (who, whoever, what, whatever,
which) or conjunctive adverbs (where, wherever, when, whenever, how, why).
Complex sentences with subject clauses may be of two patterns: I. With a subject
clause preceding the predicate of the main clause. What I need is a piece of good
advice. Whether I talked or not made little difference. How the book will sell
depends on its plot and the author. II. With a subject clause in final position, the
usual place of the subject being occupied by formal it. It seemed unfair to him that
he should suffer more than his wife. It is understood that modern science allows
such experiments. A predicative clause may be introduced by conjunctions (that,
whether, as, as if, as though, because, lest, the way), correlatives (either... or,
whether... or), or connectives. The latter may be conjunctive pronouns (who,
whoever, what, whatever, which) or conjunctive adverbs (where, wherever, when,
whenever, how, why). The fact was that he had forgotten about it. The only reason
for my coming is because I hoped to see you again. That's what he wants you to
think. An object clause may be introduced by conjunctions (that if, whether, lest),
correlatives (either... or, whether... or), or connectives. The latter may be
conjunctive pronouns (who, whoever, what, whatever which), or conjunctive
adverbs (where, wherever, when, whenever, why, how). I don't know why I tike you
so much. He was terrified that she would forget about it soon. Like objects in a
simple sentence, object clauses may vary in their relation to the principal clause
and in the way they are attached to the word they refer to or depend on. I. An
object clause may directly follow the word it refers to (a non-prepositional object
clause). Jon wondered if he had offended her. I know when I am wasting time. II.
An object clause may be joined to the main clause by the prepositions after, about,
before, beyond, for, near, of, as to, except. If a preposition is very closely attached
to the preceding verb or adjective (to agree upon, to call for, to comment upon, to
depend on, to hear of, to insist on) it generally precedes the object clause. I am not
certain of what he did. I want to be paid for what I do.
Appositive and attributive clauses.
An appositive clause may be introduced by conjunctions (that, if, whether, as if,
as though), conjunctive pronouns and adverbs (what, how). Unlike an apposition
in a simple sentence, which usually gives another name to the person or thing
designated by the antecedent, appositive clause discloses the meaning of a noun
with a very general meaning: thing, reason, point, comment, remark, probability,
idea, fact, consequence, feature. The question whether it was he or his enemy
was hotly discussed. The question how and why those people got the information
still worried him. Attributive clauses function as modifiers to a word of nominal
character, which is generally called the antecedent. Usually an attributive clause
immediately follows its antecedent, although some types may occasionally be
distant. An attributive clause may be introduced by connectives – relative
pronouns (who, whose, whom, what, which, that, as) or relative adverbs (when,
where, wherein). The choice of relative word depends on the categorical meaning
of the antecedent. a) If the antecedent denotes a living being the relative word
who, whom, whose, or that is used. A man whose voice seemed familiar to me
gave commands. b) If the antecedent denotes a thing or notion, the relative word
which, whose or that is used. There was something in his low, languid voice that
was absolutely fascinating. Clyde bowed and then took the cool hand that Myra
extended to him. c) If the antecedent is expressed by all denoting a living being
the pronoun who or that is used; if it denotes a thing or notion only the pronoun
that is generally used. All that remained was to enter his name and send off the
high entrance fees for the examination. d) If the antecedent is expressed by
everything, something, anything or nothing the relative pronoun that is generally
used. There was nothing in his face that spoke of his character. Everything that
you may want is in the wardrobe. e) If the antecedent is modified by the adjective
only, the pronoun any, or by an adjective in the superlative degree, the
attributive clause is introduced by the pronoun that. This is the only chance that
we have. F) if the antecedent is modified by the demonstrative pronoun such, the
relative pronoun as is used. She was playing the piano with such feeling as
couldn’t be expected from a girl of her age.
Compound verbal predicate.
The predicate is the second principal (main) part of the sentence and its organizing
centre, as the object and nearly all adverbial modifiers are connected with and
dependent on it. According to the meaning of its components, the predicate may
denote an action, a state, a quality, or an attitude to some action or state ascribed
to the subject. From the structural point of view there are two main types of
predicate: simple and compound. Both these types may be either nominal or
verbal, which gives four sub-groups: simple verbal, simple nominal, compound
verbal, compound nominal. Is of two kinds: modal and aspective. The Compound
Verbal Modal. This kind of predicate consists of a verb in one of its finite forms
expressing a certain modal meaning and an infinitive. The predicate may consist
of the following components: 1. a modal verb and an infinitive: I can’t read. She
must go to him. The enemy shall not pass. 2. the verbs "be" and "have" in modal
meaning, also "have got" in the meaning of necessity and an infinitive: They were
to marry in the autumn. Why did he have to leave her? I've got to express my likes
and dislikes. 3. an equivalent of a modal verb "to be (un)able", "to be capable", "to
be allowed", "to be permitted", "to be obliged", "to be compelled", "to be willing",
"to be anxious", "to be eager" and an infinitive: He was only anxious to forget. And
children were always willing to play cricket with him. 4. a notional verb with a
modal meaning and an infinitive. Here belong the verbs "to hope", "to want", "to
desire", "to wish", "to long”, to expect, to intend, to attempt, to try. I long to see
her. He almost expected to hear a price. 5. the combination "to be going to "
denoting intention and an infinitive: He is going to buy her some shoes. 6. the
phraseological units "had better (best)", "had rather", would rather (sooner) and an
infinitive: Hadn't we better call him? She said she would rather have a flowered
summer frock. The compound verbal aspect(ive). This kind of predicate consists
of two components. The first is a finite verb denoting: a) beginning, b) duration, c)
repetition, d) cessation, or end of an action. The second component is an infinitive
or gerund. To the verbs of the four mentioned groups belong in particular: 1.
beginning of an action: begin, start, commence, which are followed by both an
infinitive and a gerund; come, grow, which are combined only with an infinitive: He
began to sing. The Cubans started talking in Spanish. 2. Duration of an action:
keep (on), gо on, which are followed only by a gerund: continue, which is followed
by both an infinitive and a gerund: His mother continued to sway. Daniel continued
eating. 3. Repetition of an act ion: used to and would followed by an infinitive only:
Where did he use to hang out! Now and then the old man would correct her
pronunciation and she would repeat word. 4. cessation, or end of an action, stop,
give up, leave off, finish, which are followed only by a gerund, cease, which
combines both with an infinitive and a gerund: He ceased, however, to take out and
replace the letter. She had given up calling him sir. She hadn't stopped talking.
Attribute
Is a secondary part of the sentence which characterizes person or non-person
expressed by the headword ether qualitatively, quantitatively, or from the
point of view of situation. They may refer to nouns and other words of nominal
nature, such as pronouns and substitute words: It was a letter from his
devoted friend. Attributes may be divided into non-detached (close) and
detached (loose). Non-detached attributes form one sense group with their
headword. Attributes with identical reference (crimson flowers, white flowers,
and yellow flowers — crimson, white, and yellow flowers) are usually
interchangeable (yellow, white, and crimson flowers) and are set off by
commas (crimson, white, yellow flowers) or joined by a conjunction. Attributes
may form a string with different reference, that is, those of them which are
closer to the noun form a composite idea with subsequent words: her usual
(good temper); a clever (young man) (compare with crimson, white, yellow
flowers)', a large black and white (hunting dog). In the word-group a large
black and white hunting dog the adjective large refers to black and white
hunting dog, black and white refers to hunting dog, and hunting refers to dog.
This relation of attributes embedded inside a string of them requires a fixed
order and no comma is used to separate them. A detached attribute is only
loosely connected with its headword and is often optional from the point of
view of structure, although very important semantically. It forms a separate
sense group in speech and is accordingly separated by commas in writing. A
detached attribute may be placed in preposition, post-position, or at some
distance from the headword. Unlike non-detached attributes, a detached
attribute may modify personal and relative pronoun. Carrie looked about her,
very much disturbed and quite sure that she did not want to work here. A
daughter of poor but honest parents, I have no reason to be ashamed of my
origins. Very often a detached attribute refers not only to the headword, but
also to another part of the sentence, thus forming a double connection. And
for a moment I hesitated, unable to start talking (as I was unable to start
talking). Familiar with these details, Michael paid them little attention (because he was familiar with these details). Not in a hurry to get home, he dined
in town (as he was not in a hurry to get home).
Adverbial modifier.
Is a secondary part of the sentence which modifies another part of the sentence
expressed either by a verb ( in a (non)-finite form), an adjective, a stative or an
adverb. Semantically adverbials denote place (where, how far [here, there]),
time (when, how often, how long), manner (how, in what way [so, thus, like,
that, like this]), cause-reason (why, for what reason [therefore]), purpose (what
for), result (too, enough, so…(as)), condition (in what case, on what condition
[this/that case, but for, except for, without]), concession (in spite of what
[nevertheless, in spite of this/that, though, with all]), attendant circumstances,
comparison (than, as, as if, as though, like), degree (how much), measure
(length, time, weight, money, temperature), exception (but, except, apart from).
Structural: it can be simple, phrasal, complex, and clausal. We started early. We
started at five in the morning. John sat with his elbows on the table and his
hands clasped. When the cat is away, the mice will play.