Scientific Audit of Marine Parks
Background information for Marine Tourism
This document and the material referenced herein relate to the Scientific Audit Terms of
Reference :
“Review the degree to which all threats to the varying types of marine environments have been properly identified and prioritised. In doing this the panel will consider the degree to which the marine parks process is anticipated to address each significant threat”
Department of Primary Industries contacts:
Adrian Toovey adrian.toovey@industry.nsw.gov.au tel: 02 9527 8443 mob: 0412 252 596
The NRM Ministerial Council Marine Biodiversity Decline Report (2008) has categorised threats to marine biodiversity as follows:
Climate change
Resource use
Land based impacts
Marine Biosecurity
Marine Pollution
Fishing (Commercial, recreational, indigenous, plus illegal, unreported and unregulated
Aquaculture
Dredging and spoil dumping
Mineral, oil, gas exploration and extraction
Shipping
Tourism
Diffuse and point-source pollution
Pests and Disease
Oil spills, marine debris,
This material deals with the threat of marine tourism from resource use.
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Marine tourism and recreational use of the marine environment
Nature-based tourism is growing in popularity (Hardiman and Burgin 2010). The potential benefits of marine tourism include a greater appreciation of local marine biota, increased awareness of conservation actions and greater opportunity for conservation initiatives driven by the economic potential of ecotourism. Nonetheless, the impacts of marine tourism on natural systems can be substantial, which is why tourism was highlighted as a threat to marine biodiversity in the NRM Ministerial Council Marine Biodiversity Decline Report (2008).
Tourism activities adjacent to NSW Marine Parks have been profiled in part in a series of reports to NSW Government agencies (e.g., CARE 2005, 2006, NSW Marine Parks Authority
2006, 2006, Arche Consulting 2010a, b, c, d, e, f, g). These reports have mostly focused on the influence of marine protected areas on regional economies because (i) marine activities are a driver of visitation to Local Government Areas (LGAs) adjacent to NSW marine parks and (ii) over 30% of businesses in these areas have an association with the tourism industry (Arche
Consulting 2010a). Commercial tourism businesses operating in NSW marine parks include beach equipment hire, boat hire, charter fishing, general charters, dive operators, marine mammal watching, ferry services, filming, photography, houseboat hire, jetski hire, kayaking, parasailing, surf schools and thrill rides.
The majority of tourists visiting LGAs adjacent to mainland marine parks in NSW are from the domestic market, with less than 5% being international for all parks except Cape Byron Marine
Park with 13%. Across all mainland NSW marine parks, going to the beach was the most popular activity for domestic tourists followed by eating out, visiting friends and relatives, walking or driving around, shopping and going to pubs, clubs, etc. (Arche Consulting 2010a).
For international tourists, going to the beach was also the most popular activity with national parks and dolphin watching being important at some locations (Arche Consulting 2010a).
Understanding tourism is of crucial importance to effective management of marine parks, in terms of (i) establishing the benefits and cost of marine parks to regional economies reliant on tourism, (ii) targeting promotional, educational and advisory material to maximize appreciation of the marine environment and voluntary compliance, (iii) prioritizing enforcement activities to compensate for seasonal changes in visitation and (iv) minimizing conflict over access to marine resources among different stakeholder groups.
The national focus on marine tourism as key threat to marine biodiversity probably stems from iconic marine parks with sensitive habitats located in relatively remote areas. For example, tourism impacts are of great concern for the 7% of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park that receives 85% of the 1.6 million tourists per year (Harriott 2002). In contrast, in the many population centres on the NSW coast the impacts on marine biodiversity from local coastal populations can outweigh those of tourists when they participate in similar activities (e.g. beach going, fishing, surfing, etc.). With perhaps the exception of Lord Howe Island and several other peak tourist destinations (e.g. Julian Rocks in Cape Byron Marine Park), it is more useful to consider threats to marine biodiversity as the cumulative impacts of tourists and locals in NSW, rather than separating these groups.
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Users of marine and estuarine ecosystems in NSW participate in a range of extractive (e.g., charter fishing, shell collecting, etc.) and non-extractive activities (e.g., sailing, surfing, swimming, etc.). Read and West (2010) identified 76 permitted activity types carried out in
NSW marine parks that have potential to impact biodiversity. Twenty of these were nonextractive activities that were divided into broad categories, including boating, marine mammal watching, scuba diving, airplanes, artificial reefs, dog walking, fish feeding, education programs and organized events (non-fishing). Low-impact activities, such as swimming or beach walking, were not included. The 20 activities risk-assessed by Read and West (2010) fit well with those indicated in community and visitor recreational use questionnaires and a random phone survey of residents adjacent to NSW marine parks (e.g., NSW Marine Parks Authority 2003). As extractive resource use is covered by other background documents, this following information will focus on key non-extractive activities carried out in NSW marine parks.
Recent reviews of the impacts of tourism and recreational use of marine systems by Ormsby et al. (2004), Davenport and Davenport (2006), and Hardiman and Burgin (2010) provide useful summaries of the primary scientific literature around this topic. In particular, Hardiman and
Burgin’s (2010) review contains many references from Australia and NSW. Rather than providing a similar broad literature review, the following background information will highlight threats and introduce literature important for management of non-extractive resources use in
NSW marine parks.
General low-impact activities:
Non-extractive foreshore-based activities (e.g., swimming, exercising, beach pursuits, surfing, etc.) represent the most popular pastimes in the NSW marine parks. In general, these activities pose little threat to biodiversity and thus have low priority in conservation management plans.
However, Illegal littering or wildlife disturbance during foreshore activities can have lasting impacts. Similarly, excessive trampling of intertidal algae, plants and animals can also cause substantial impacts to some intertidal habitats (e.g., saltmarsh, NSW Department of
Environment and Climate Change 2008, mangroves, Ross 2006 or rocky shores, Keough and
Quinn 1998). Interactions between domestic animals and wildlife (e.g., dogs, birds and seals) are also of concern because they can impact the breeding success of threatened shorebirds or facilitate interspecies disease transmission (e.g., see Australian Wildlife Health Network 2011 for review of morbilliviruses and Australian seals). Fish feeding also needs to be cautiously managed to minimize impacts to biota and visitors (Brookhouse 2011).
For NSW marine parks, low-impact activities are generally managed on a case by case basis to ensure the objects of Marine Parks Act (1997) are not compromised. When low-impact activities are commercial ventures (e.g. kayak tours) or organized events (e.g. triathlons) they are managed through a NSW Marine Parks Authority ’s permitting process. In general, management actions addressing low- impact activities on the foreshore are carried out in collaboration with local government or national park rangers.
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Visitor infrastructure:
Substantial foreshore development is required to facilitate commercial and recreational activities in marine systems. This can include a variety of infrastructure, such as harbours, boat ramps, jetties, retaining walls, groynes, marinas, slipways, pump out stations, shark mesh nets, artificial reefs, etc. Installation of these structures can be associated with habitat destruction (e.g., loss of mangroves, seagrasses, salt marshes, etc), changes in habitat structure and complexity, alterations of biotic assemblages and in the cases of marinas, increased opportunity for invasion and pollution. Furthermore, many of these structures also alter abiotic conditions, including hydrodynamics and sediment dynamics with further flow on effects to structure and function of ecosystems.
One particular concern for Jervis Bay Marine Park has been the impact of swing moorings on seagrass ( Posidonia australis ) beds. Consequently, two projects have been undertaken to investigate (i) the impacts of moorings on seagrass habitats (Crawford 2003) and (ii) the cost and benefits of seagrass-friendly moorings (Demers 2011).
Local governments, the Land and property Management Authority, NSW Maritime and NSW
Marine Parks Authority all have vested and inter-related management responsibilities for the foreshore of mainland marine parks in NSW. Foreshore management plans are often adopted to ensure coordination among relevant agencies (e.g., Port Stephens Foreshore Management
Plan, Umwelt 2009).
Boating:
Approximately 33% of Australia ’s boating activity occurs in NSW waters (National Maritime
Safety Committee 2010). The numbers of boating licenses, vessel registrations and moorings have been steadily increasing over the last decade in NSW (NSW Maritime 2010). Despite this, if regulations and guidelines are followed then boating represents a limited threat to marine biodiversity in NSW. If not managed appropriately, however, boating activities can impact biodiversity through careless anchoring, wake-induced shoreline erosion, toxic anti-fouling paint, propeller damage to aquatic vegetation, boat strikes to wildlife, excessive noise or illegal discharge of pollutants (Davenport and Davenport 2006). Probably the most significant threat from boating is the translocation of invasive species (Hardiman and Burgin 2010). The expanding cruise ship industry is also cause for concern (Davenport and Davenport 2006), as the capacity of the largest ships now exceeds 5000 people. Cruise visitation to NSW marine parks has been slowly increasing and may require more consideration in future operational plans.
Boating activities are appropriately regulated in NSW to minimize threats to marine biodiversity.
Principally, NSW Maritime is responsible for the management of boating activities and their impacts. However, NSW marine parks have specific legislation to ensure responsible anchoring and that heavily fouled or abandoned vessels do not impact on natural values. A Memorandum of Understanding between NSW Maritime and NSW Marine Park Authority signed in 2010 clarifies the responsibilities of the two organizations.
There has been concern about the potential negative impacts of fast moving boats on dolphin populations in NSW marine parks. Research in Jervis Bay and Port Stephens –Great Lakes
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marine parks suggests that fast moving boats do not have substantial impacts on dolphin surface behaviour (Lemon et al. 2005, Stechenruter et al. 2011).
Vehicles on beaches:
The use of 4WDs on beaches is becoming increasingly popular in Australia (Hardiman and
Burgin 2010). Environmental impacts for this activity can include degradation of dune vegetation, displacement of birds and reduced survival rate of newly hatched turtles, as well as impacts to ghost crabs, pipis and other biota. Because the potential for impacts to beach fauna from 4WDing was relatively unknown, the NSW Marine Parks Authority has been involved in several studies addressing this knowledge gap (Bell 2005, Sheppard et al. 2009).
Scuba diving:
Scuba diving is a key activity for promoting awareness and appreciation for marine environments and is popular within NSW marine parks. Julian Rocks in Cape Byron Marine
Park, for example, can have as many as 35000 divers per year, contributing an estimated $2.8 million p.a. to the local community (NSW Marine Parks Authority 2003). The physical impact of divers on corals has been well documented in the scientific literature, which is a key consideration for marine parks in northern NSW and at Lord Howe Island. Substantial work has been also done on diver interactions with grey nurse sharks in NSW (see Grey Nurse Shark background document). Researchers from Jervis Bay Marine Park have also undertaken studies investigating (i) interactions between fishers and divers (Lynch et al. 2004) and (ii) the impacts of “shark shields” on elasmobranch behaviour (Broad et al. 2010).
Wildlife watching:
Wildlife observation is popular activity along the NSW coast. In particular, whale and dolphin watching represents a lucrative commercial activity in NSW waters. For example, Port
Stephens –Great Lakes Marine Park supports up to 250,000 passengers per year on dedicated dolphin watching trips generating ca. $5 million pa in gross revenue (NSW Marine Parks
Authority 2010). Intensive observation of marine mammals, such as whales, dolphins and seals, has the potential to alter their behaviour if appropriate consideration is not given (e.g.,
Stamation et al. 2010). To address this, the Australian National Guidelines for Whale and
Dolphin Watching (Department of Environment and Heritage 2005) is applied in NSW marine parks through regulations within the National Parks and Wildlife Act.
Bibliography:
Arche Consulting (2010a) Local business servicing visitation and management on NSW marine parks. Report to NSW Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water (DECCW).
Arche Consulting (2010b) Batemans Marine Park: profile of local businesses. Report to NSW
Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water (DECCW).
Arche Consulting (2010c) Cape Byron Marine Park: profile of local businesses. Report to NSW
Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water (DECCW).
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Arche Consulting (2010d) Jervis Bay Marine Park: profile of local businesses. Report to NSW
Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water (DECCW).
Arche Consulting (2010e) Lord Howe Island Marine Park: profile of local businesses. Report to
NSW Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water (DECCW).
Arche Consulting (2010f) Port Stephens - Great Lakes Marine Park: profile of local businesses.
Report to NSW Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water (DECCW).
Arche Consulting (2010g) Solitary Islands Marine Park: profile of local businesses. Report to
NSW Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water (DECCW).
Australian Wildlife Health Network (2011) Australian seals and morbilliviruses. Fact sheet from
Australian Wildlife Health Network.
Bell TA (2005) The impact of four wheel drive vehicles on, and the natural variation of, sandy beach meiofauna. MSc Thesis, University of New England, NSW.
Broad A, Knott N, Turon X, Davis AR (2010) Effects of a shark repulsion device on rocky reef fishes: no shocking outcomes. Marine Ecology Progress Series 408: 295 –298.
Brookhouse N (2011) Impacts, risks and management of fish feeding at Neds Beach, Lord
Howe Island Marine Park. Honours Thesis, Southern Cross University, NSW.
CARE (2005) The estimated economic impact of the proposed Port Stephens – Great Lakes
Marine Park on commercial activities. Final Report to the NSW Marine Parks Authority.
CARE (2006) The estimated economic impact of the Batemans Marine Park on commercial activities. Report to NSW Marine Parks Authority.
Crawford D (2003) Impact monitoring of anchoring and mooring damage to seagrass meadows in Jervis Bay and an appraisal of monitoring methods. Honours Thesis, University of
Wollongong, NSW.
Davenport J, Davenport JL (2006) The impact of tourism and personal leisure transport on coastal environments: a review. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 67: 280-292.
Demers M (2010) Dragging the chain: impacts of permanent mooring systems in seagrass meadows of Jervis Bay Marine Park, NSW, Australia. Honours Thesis, University of
Wollongong, NSW.
Department of Environment and Climate Change NSW (2008) Best practice guidelines for coastal saltmarsh. Department of Environment and Climate Change NSW, Sydney.
Department of Environment and Heritage (2005) Australian National guidelines for whale and dolphin watching. Department of Environment and Heritage, Canberra.
Hardiman N, Burgin S (2010) Recreational impacts on the fauna of Australian coastal marine ecosystems. Journal of Environmental Management 91: 2096-2108.
Harriott VJ (2002) Marine tourism impacts and their management on the Great Barrier Reef.
CRC Reef Research Centre Technical Report No 46. CRC Reef Research Centre, Townsville.
Keough MJ, Quinn GP (1998). Effects of periodic disturbances from trampling on rocky intertidal algal beds. Ecological Applications 8:141-161.
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Lemon M, Lynch TP, Harcourt RG, Cato DH (2005) Response of travelling inshore bottlenose dolphins ( Tursiops aduncus ) to experimental approaches by a powerboat in Jervis Bay, New
South Wales, Australia. Biological Conservation 127: 363-372.
Lynch TP, Melling L, Hamilton R, Macready, Wilkinson E, Feary S (2004) Conflict and impacts of divers and anglers in a marine park. Environmental Management 33: 196-211.
Marine Biodiversity Decline Working Group (2008) A national approach to addressing marine biodiversity decline. Report to the Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council.
National Maritime Safety Committee (2010) National boat usage study: trip analysis. National
Maritime Safety Committee.
NSW Marine Parks Authority (2006) Background resource working paper for the Cape Byron
Marine Park. NSW Marine Parks Authority.
NSW Marine Parks Authority (2006) Socio-economic assessment of the Batemans Marine Park.
NSW Marine Parks Authority.
NSW Marine Parks Authority (2010) Port Stephens – Great Lakes Marine Park operational plan.
NSW Marine Parks Authority.
NSW Maritime (2010) 2010 Annual report. NSW Maritime.
Ormsby J, Gianna M, Pearce P, Foxlee J (2004) A review of research in tourist and recreational uses of protected natural areas. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, Townsville.
Read AD and West RJ (2010) Qualitative risk assessment of multiple-use marine park effectiveness - a case study from NSW, Australia. Ocean & Coastal Management 53: 636-644.
Ross P (2006) Macrofaunal loss and microhabitat destruction; the impact of trampling in a temperate mangrove forest, NSW, Australia. Wetlands Ecology and Management 14: 167-184.
Sheppard N, Pitt KA, Schlacher TA (2009) Sub-lethal effects of off-road vehicles (ORVs) on surf clams on sandy beaches. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 380: 113 –118.
Stamation KA, Croft DB, Shaugnessy PD, Waples KA, Briggs SV (2010) Behavioural responses of humpback whales ( Megaptera novaeangliae ) to whale-watching vessels on the south-eastern coast of Australia. Marine Mammal Science 26: 98-122.
Steckenreuter A, Harcourt R, Moller L (2011) Are speed restriction zones an effective management tool for minimizing impacts of boats on dolphins in an Australian marine park?
Marine Policy doi:10.1016/j.marpol.2011.05.013
Umwelt (2009) A foreshore management plan for Port Stephens. Report to the Port Stephens and Great Lakes Council.
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