Integral quality system for the operation of water and
sanitation programs in camps
Tom de Veer
DRAFT
(second edition)
Leiden, January 1st, 1999
De Veer Consultancy
ACF, IFRC, CARE-I, MSF-H
Table of contents
Table of contents
i
Foreword
v
1.
2.
3.
Introduction
1
1.1
Background.
1
1.2
Structure of the document.
3
1.3
How the manual can be used
4
1.4
Current situation
4
1.5
Terminology.
5
Program planning
8
2.1
Introduction.
8
2.2
Initial assessment(s).
9
2.3
Problem tree.
9
2.4
Objective tree.
10
2.5
Program objectives
11
2.6
Strategy
12
2.7
Program design and activities
12
2.8
Program success factors
12
2.9
The place of this manual in the planning process
17
2.10
Recommended literature
17
General tasks
3.1
17
Introduction.
17
3.2
Obtaining and interpreting health statistics.
3.2.1
Using health statistics to assess the impact of a watsan program
3.2.2
How health statistics are obtained
3.2.3
Analysis of health statistics from curative health facilities
17
17
18
19
3.3
Information gathering: description of some general techniques
3.3.1
Informal information gathering.
3.3.2
Structured observations.
3.3.3
Interviewing.
3.3.4
Meetings.
24
24
26
28
28
Table of Contents
p. i
3.3.4.1
3.3.4.2
3.3.4.3
3.3.4.4
3.3.4.5
Informal group discussion
Focus group discussion
Open group discussion
Mass meetings
Workshop
28
29
34
34
36
3.4
Population census.
37
3.4.1
Counting inhabited huts and determining the average number of inhabitants per hut.
37
3.4.2
Obtaining figures from other programs.
37
3.4.3
Mapping.
37
3.4.4
Counting from the air.
37
3.4.5
Interpretation of aerial or satellite photographs.
37
3.5
Tasks of general support staff.
3.5.1
Field Administrator
3.5.2
Office administrator
3.5.3
Office logistician
3.5.4
Program manager
4.
38
39
41
41
41
Drinking water
4.1
45
Introduction
45
4.2
Piped water supply program
4.2.1
Tapstand caretakers
4.2.2
System controllers
4.2.3
Plumbers
4.2.4
Team leader of the plumbers
4.2.5
Supervisor Distribution
4.2.6
Guards at pump stations and storage tanks
4.2.7
Mechanics
4.2.8
Source caretaker
4.2.9
Tank operators
4.2.10 Pump operators
4.2.11 Supervisor Water Pumping and Storage
4.2.12 Guards of the water treatment site
4.2.13 Water treatment staff
4.2.14 Supervisor Water Treatment
Name water treatment site:__________________ Name Supervisor:____________________
4.2.15
4.2.16
4.2.17
4.2.18
4.2.19
5.
6.
Overall Supervisor Piped Water Program
Program Manager
Office Administrator
Office Logistician
Evaluating piped water supply programs
48
50
52
58
60
62
66
67
70
71
73
79
84
85
97
99
100
100
107
107
107
Family pit latrines
108
5.1.1
113
Sanitation workers
Vector control
6.1
115
Introduction.
115
6.2
Residual spraying programs.
6.2.1
Sprayers
6.2.2
Spraying solution carriers
121
124
128
Table of Contents
p. ii
6.2.3
6.2.4
6.2.5
6.2.6
6.2.7
6.2.8
6.2.9
6.2.10
Team leader of a spraying team
Insecticide mixers
Supervisor
Program manager
Field administrator
Office administrator
Logistician in charge of purchasing the insecticide
Recommended literature
6.3
Rodent control programs
6.3.1
Introduction
6.3.2
Preventive measures
6.3.3
Trapping and hunting
6.3.4
Chemical control measures
6.3.4.1 Chemical control of the parasites carried by rodents
6.3.4.2 Chemical rodent control with acute poisons
6.3.4.3 Chemical rodent control with anticoagulents (chronic or slow-acting poisons)
6.3.4.4 Bait
6.3.4.5 Recommendations for safety in chemical rodent control programs
6.3.5
Rodent control in food stores
6.3.6
Sequence of activities
6.3.7
monitoring aspects of rodent control programs
6.3.7.1 Monitoring of trapping programs
6.3.7.2 Monitoring of chemical rodent control programs
6.3.8
Recommended literature
7.
8.
Hygiene promotion
129
140
142
146
158
158
159
159
159
159
161
162
162
162
163
163
164
165
166
167
167
168
168
169
151
7.1
Introduction.
151
7.2
Hygiene promoters
153
7.3
Team leader
172
Reporting formats
175
8.1
Introduction
175
8.2
Weekly report
175
8.3
Monthly report
176
8.4
Periodic report (usually every 3 or 6 months)
176
8.5
External evaluation report (executed in ongoing programmes when needed or at standard
intervals)
178
8.6
Handover and/or end of mission report for programmes which are not yet finished
8.7
Final external evaluation report at the end of a programme or cluster of programmes 181
8.7.1.1.1.1 Examples of a water points map, water point sheet and water point table 182
8.7.1.1.1.2 Environmental hygiene survey
187
8.7.1.1.1.3 household survey
191
Annex 1 Mosquito surveys
193
A 1.1 Initial mosquito survey
193
A 1.2 Methods to identify mosquitoes and/or determine their numbers
195
Annex 2 An example of a monthly report
200
Annex 3 Diseases that may be found in camps and which are or may be related to
water supply and/or environmental hygiene
204
A 3.1 Diarrheal diseases
204
A 3.2 Fevers
205
Table of Contents
p. iii
179
A 3.3
A 3.4
A 3.5
A 3.6
A 3.7
Annex 4
Annex 5
Pneumonial diseases
Skin infections
Hepatitis A and E
Meningitis
Measles
Recommended minimum standards
Bibliography
Table of Contents
p. iv
207
207
207
208
208
209
213
Foreword
This manual has been produced with financial support from the organizations Action Contre
la Faim (ACF), the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC),
Care International (CARE-I) and Artsen Zonder Grenzen (MSF-H).
The manual is still a draft. The final aim is to produce an integral quality system for the
operation of water and sanitation programs in camps. This draft is a first attempt in this
direction. Only a few programs have been worked out. The idea is that implementing
organizations can, with this draft, assess whether the concept of the document fulfils their
requirements for integral quality systems. It is also hoped that both implementing and donor
agencies will further look into the contents and field test the described systems and finally use
their experiences to continue work on this manual so that the final aim can be realized.
Forward
p. v
1.
Introduction
The aspects dealt with in this chapter are:
 background to the development of this manual and target groups,
 the structure of the document,
 how the manual can be used, and
 some basic terminology used in this manual
1.1Background.
In 1995 just after returning from 5 months work as a manager of water and sanitation
programs in large camps for displaced persons in Rwanda, the author conducted a study
to assess how monitoring and evaluation of water and sanitation programs in camps can
be improved. The most important conclusion of the study was that a comprehensive
manual was needed on the subject in order to improve program management and
accountability functions. This conclusion was supported by 12, most implementing,
agencies who had participated in the study. As a result work started in 1997 to produce
such a manual.
The following conclusions from early results of the work led to a change of the project
though:
 Monitoring concerns each and every person working within a watsan program.
 A distinction is necessary between the construction of facilities (during which certain
monitoring tasks need to be executed) and the regular operation of programs (during
which often completely different monitoring tasks are needed).
 It is very difficult and artificial to distinguish between operational tasks and monitoring
tasks. For instance, in task descriptions often the term ‘control’ is used which in fact
constitutes both a monitoring and an operational task. This led to the general feeling
that it is no good to describe only one part of people’s tasks (the monitoring tasks).
People in the field need a complete and comprehensive description of their tasks, not
only part of it. This was very much related to the question who the manual was meant
for and how it should be used.
The result of these conclusions was that we decided to:
1. Concentrate on the operational tasks of a program (because descriptions of
monitoring in construction are already extensively described in other manuals).
2. Produce a manual for use in the field directly by program staff as well as by
managers.
3. Change the emphasis from a generic approach to a practical program oriented
approach comprising the description of specific programs which are often found in
camps.
4. Describe all tasks that different staff active in watsan programs in camps should
execute and include directive texts for the further explanation of certain topics that
are also suitable for training of those staff.
These decisions have finally led to the production of the current manual, comprising an
integral quality system for the operation of a number of watsan programs typical for
camps. In this first draft only a number of topics have been worked on and even several
of these topics need much further attention. The reason to present these initial results in
Chapter 1 : Introduction
p. 1
this document is simply because funds to continue the work are lacking and because it is
believed that it the work is sufficiently far advanced that together with others it can be
assessed to what extent the approach followed in the document is useful.
Chapter 1 : Introduction
p. 2
1.2Structure of the document.
Chapter 1
An introductory chapter explaining the background and use of the manual
as well as some important terminology used.
Chapter 2
Explanation of how programs should be planned and why and how this is
important for their success, structure, management and evaluation
afterwards plus an explanation of the part of the planning process covered
by the manual.
Chapter 3
A description of general subjects important for all water and sanitation
programs:
 Obtaining and interpreting health statistics
 Information gathering; description of some general techniques
 Population census
 The general tasks of general support staff (administrator, logistician,
program manager)
Chapter 4-7 Chapters describing different water and sanitation programs often
executed in camps1. The chapter on drinking water for instance describes
5 different types of water programs2: piped water supply, deep boreholes,
handpumps, water tankering, and springs. Each chapter contains an
introduction in which the ‘minimum recommended objective’ for the
program(s) described in that chapter is given together with a set of
specifications. For each program the following aspects are included:
 An organogram showing how the program is built up and who are
working in it.
 For each of the different staff working in the program the following is
described:
1. materials/tools needed,
2. number of those staff needed,
3. operational tasks (a distinction is made, where applicable, between
tasks in emergencies and tasks in non-emergencies),
4. examples of reporting and logbook forms where applicable.
 Boxes in which specific subjects important for the implementation and
operation of the program are worked out, giving additional background
information which can for instance be used as a basis for the training of
staff.
 Notes of use for the evaluation of the program.
The descriptions of the operational tasks include:
 a short statement of the task
 a more detailed task description including elements as how the task
should be executed, how to react in case problems arise, who to report
to, referrals to the boxes in which subjects important for that task are
further worked out etc.
 indications of the timing (when/how often should the task be executed)
 specifications important for the execution of that task.
1
2
The chapters currently included are: drinking water, family pit latrines, vector control and hygiene
promotion. In the final document chapters on other subjects will be included as well, e.g. solid
waste, drainage, etc.
In the current draft document only the piped water program has been included.
Chapter 1 : Introduction
p. 3
1.3How the manual can be used
The manual can be used in a couple of ways:
 Field managers can build up a new program according to the structures described in
the manual. Doing so they can be pretty sure that all essential elements are included.
They can hand out copies of the task descriptions to each of the involved staff and
provide additional training on issues where they lack experience3.
 In an existing program a field manager can use the manual to assess whether all
aspects are sufficiently covered and whether the structure of the program and/or the
task descriptions of the staff can be optimized.
 As a general background information source for water and sanitation programs.
 As a basis for training courses.
 As a resource document for donor and implementing agencies to develop their own
guidelines.
The manual is most suitable for camps of say 15.000 people or more. For smaller camps
or for camps with very specific circumstances the structures will have to be adapted. It is
the task of the field manager to work out, together with his staff what the most optimal
structures, but also the most optimal task descriptions are for the specific situation in
which the program has to operate. The manual can hereby be used as a checklist,
example and toolkit for building up the most suitable structures, not as a definite form
prescribing how things should be.
To start using the tool in the field one can hand out copies of the task descriptions to
each staff member so that they can work with it (the tasks described may have to be
divided differently in order to fit to the specific staffing structure of the concerned
program). When developing programs from scratch, for instance in new camps, the
manual will help to set up clear structures in which everybody knows what to do in a
very short time. Later workshops can be organized enabling people to feed back on
their experiences and work together to further optimize and fit the program to the
specific circumstances in their camp.
1.4Current situation
The current document contains about 170 pages of text and is ready for use in the
field. Much work is still needed though to:
 describe other types of programs that are not yet included now,
 further work out a number of appendixes, and
 test the tool in practice.
Field-testing is absolutely necessary! The document is largely designed for work
in the field. It can only function as such if it fits completely to the circumstances in the
field and the practice of the people working there. Therefore it would be good if field
staff of organizations test the tool and give feed back about their experiences. This
can then be used for the finalization of a more comprehensive and complete tool: an
integral quality system for water and sanitation programs in camps.
3
In the boxes included in each of the chapters handholds are provided for all kinds of operational
aspects many of which can immediately be used as training material.
Chapter 1 : Introduction
p. 4
1.5Terminology.
The terminology used in this manual is as simple and basic as possible. This is to avoid
confusion among the readers who will often be people who are not experts in the
subjects dealt with. On top of this we have left out many terms which are often used in
handbooks but of which we believe that they are difficult to interpret and use. For
instance terms as ‘monitoring’, ‘indicators’ and ‘standards’ are left out because they are
confusing, in many documents used in different meanings and in their definitions also
often overlapping. Instead we use expressions that need no further explanation, such as
‘information needed’, ‘who should obtain the information’, ‘when and how to obtain the
information’, ‘the analysis and use of information’ and ‘specifications’. The next pages
contain an overview of the terms that we do use and of which we believed that they need
(some simple) explanation.
Objective: the result(s) to be achieved.
Depending on the use of an objective it can be described in more or less detail. In its
most detailed form the description of an objective usually includes specifications such as
the timing (when do you want it to be achieved), the target groups (who are the results
meant for), and specifications with regard to quantity and quality of the results to be
achieved (e.g. the amount of water that should be available per person per day, water
quality specifications etc.). When planning programs a distinction is often made between
objectives at different levels (see also chapter 2). Objectives at the higher levels are
usually described in general terms (e.g. ‘to release the suffering of those affected by the
disaster’, or ‘to safeguard the health of the beneficiaries’) while objectives at lower levels
are much more specifically directed to certain programs or activities and described in
much more detail (e.g. the objectives used in the chapters on the different programs in
this manual with their sets of specifications). Other documents often use terms as ‘goal’,
‘aim’, ‘main’ or ‘overall objective’ etc. to refer to different levels of objectives. To avoid
confusion these terms have been left out in this manual.
Recommended minimum objective: the results that we recommend should
minimally be achieved in a given situation.
A distinction is made between emergencies and non-emergencies. Each recommended
minimum objective goes together with a list of specifications many of which are in
accordance with the minimum standards and rules of good practice as defined by the
Sphere project and well-known documents such as 'Engineering in Emergencies'. With
regard to timing: in general, objectives for emergencies should be achieved within a
couple of days to a couple of weeks (say 1 to 4 weeks), while objectives for nonemergencies should usually be achieved within a couple of months (say 2 to 6 months).
Assessment: an investigation during a limited period of time to obtain specific
information for the (possible) planning of new activities.
Evaluation: an in-depth investigation, of the performance of an ongoing or
completed programme, executed, as systematically and
objectively as possible, during a limited period of time.
During an evaluation one may be interested in only certain aspects or in a wide range of
aspects (see the aspects mentioned under ‘programs’). However, the more aspects you
want to investigate, the more information you will need to obtain and analyse and
therewith the more time and resources (money, human resources) you will need to
complete the exercise. Therefore it is very important to prepare an evaluation carefully
and decide on the aspects on which one really wants to have information (see also
paragraph .....). Evaluations are usually done to get recommendations on how to further
improve the aspects looked at of on-going programs or on how to improve those aspects
Chapter 1 : Introduction
p. 5
in similar programs in the future. Evaluations make use of the information available
through program documents (reports, administrations, logbooks etc.), the people working
in the programs (interviews, workshops) and additional investigations (especially if the
first two do not provide sufficient information). An important basis of each evaluation
therewith is the information that comes available through the normal day to day practises
of the program on which the evaluation focusses.
Disaster: an event or combination of events which causes physical loss or
damage, social and/or economic disruption.
Disasters can consist of any combination of the following categories:
 natural, sudden-onset disasters, caused by cyclones, floods, earthquakes;
 natural, slow-onset disasters, caused by draught or famine;
 human-induced sudden-onset disasters, such as those caused by war;
 human-induced slow-onset disasters, such as for instance those caused by chronic
political problems developing over a longer period of time.
Emergency:
a situation of hardship and human suffering arising from a
disaster, which may develop if the organizational structures in
place can not or do not cope with this situation or if no such
structures are available.
In case an emergency is caused by a combination of the disaster categories as
described above one often talks about a complex emergency. With regard to camps an
emergency may develop when displaced people rapidly settle down in an area where no
or insufficient organisational structures are or have been put in place to provide these
people with the basic services they need. Such a situation often exists during the initial
phase of the development of a new camp but it can also arise in an existing camp where
for instance suddenly large influxes of new arrivals settle down (overloading the existing
organizational structures to such an extent that one can talk about an emergency).
Non-emergency: all situations that do not fit in the definition for ‘emergency’, usually
marked by at least some kind of stability and limited problems.
Displaced persons: people who have fled their home area to other areas within
their country of origin.
Refugees: people who have fled their home area to other areas outside their
country of origin. In this manual the term refugees will further be used to
mean both ‘refugees’ and ‘displaced persons’ unless the distinction is
explicitly stipulated.
Camp: a temporary basis for refugees or displaced persons.
Donors: every organization and person donating funds.
Donor agencies: funding organizations.
Implementing
agencies:
implementation.
organizations
responsible
Chapter 1 : Introduction
p. 6
for
program
Support agencies: organizations specialized in and responsible for a number
of supporting tasks to implementing and sometimes donor
agencies, e.g. training of expat staff, finding and supplying
expatriate staff when needed, production of manuals and advice to
other organizations.
Program: used in this report to mean both 'program' and 'project'.
In a program the following aspects are often of importance: effectivity, efficiency,
utilization, impact, safety, contingency, relevance, sustainability and replicability. When
staff gather, interpret, use and report information as part of their tasks it is often
information with regard to one or a combination of these aspects. Also evaluations are
often based on obtaining information on one or a combination of these aspects. See
further chapter 2.
Operation: all activities executed to continue an existing program (thus
including what others call ‘maintenance activities’)
Implementation: all activities to start a new program or new activities within a
program after the planning phase.
Project cycle:
An interpretation of what we mean with a project cycle is presented below.
Chapter 1 : Introduction
p. 7
2.
Program planning
2.1 Introduction.
This chapter describes the process of program planning. It enables the reader to
develop an understanding of the importance of proper planning as a basis for
successful programs while it also shows what part of the planning process is covered
by this manual.
The process to be followed when planning a program is as follows:
Situation
assessment
analysis
Problems
structure in
problem tree
convert to objectives
Objectives
structure in objective tree
Situational factors + priorities
Project objectives + Strategy
Step in the planning
process
Activity
Situational factors + priorities
Design of program implementation and operation
Figure 2.1 The program planning process
Chapter 2 : Program planning
p. 8
Influencing factor
2.2Initial assessment(s).
An initial assessment provides the basic information needed to obtain a first idea
about the circumstances and the need for further investigations. In emergencies the
time is often too limited for further investigations and the program then has to be
planned on basis of the initial assessment alone. The information obtained during an
initial assessment is also used often to form an information baseline against which
later the program can be evaluated. Usually however, the initial assessment does not
provide sufficient information for evaluation purposes and additional information
should then be gathered as soon as possible after the initial assessment.
An initial assessment usually includes:
 A review of existing documents with relevant information (existing reports about the area,
documents about the subjects you expect to become involved in, topographical maps).
 Discussions with experts who worked in the area before.
 A visit to the area to obtain information through informal observations, discussions and
meetings with program staff, leaders, beneficiaries and other key informants. To prepare
for this, one should set objectives for the initial assessment, define activities, develop
checklists for information gathering, and select information gathering methods. Some of
the checklists of chapter 7 and Appendix ... can be used as an example, also Appendix 8 in
Davis and Lambert 1995 and Appendix 1 of The Sphere Project, Chapter 2 contain useful
checklists.
Much of what is described in chapter 3 of this document about information gathering
techniques through structured walks, meetings etc. is also applicable for initial assessments.
2.3Problem tree.
When as much information as possible has been gathered it is necessary to process and
analyze the information. Based on the analyzed information and knowledge of the persons
involved in the planning process, the problems can be structured in a problem tree:
People have poor health
Poor water quality and quantity
Poor sanitation
poorly skilled
skilled staff
Poor food availability
Poor food
distribution system
Poor access
to the area
corruption
insufficient guidance
by program manager
poor administrative system
Poor curative health services
Food in stores
affected by rodents
some people are
tempted to be corrupt
Figure 2.2 Example of a problem tree (certain parts worked out in more detail)
Chapter 2 : Program planning
p. 9
To make a problem tree: sit together with key informants and members of the assessment
team and ask them to write down problems on charts (based both on their personal knowledge
and experience and the information obtained through the assessment4), one problem per chart
Then gather the charts and put them on a wall or board (group the ones which express the
same problem). Distinguish between the level or order of problems: problems of a higher
order are usually underlain by causes which in themselves are problems concerning more
detailed subjects. They are therefore problems of a so-called lower order. When
distinguishing between the levels of the problems the problem tree develops. Important
principle: a problem at one level is caused by the combination of problems one level lower.
2.4Objective tree.
Now each problem can be converted to an objective. That is, a problem is a negative
statement (e.g. not enough food) which should be converted to a positive statement (ensure
that people have enough food). When doing so the problem tree is converted to an objective
tree. For the example problem tree of figure 2.2 the following objective tree can be developed:
improve health
improve water quality and quantity
train staff
improve sanitation
improve the food
distribution system
improve access
to the area
Make corruption impossible
make more managers
available for guidance
improve administrative system
Figure 2.3
improve food availability
improve curative health services
implement a rodent
control program
find and sack corrupt staff
Example of an objective tree (certain parts worked out more than others)
Rule:
Achieving all the objectives at one level should mean the achievement of the connected
objective at one level higher!
4
Practice has learned that involving illiterate or poorly educated people in such an exercise is
difficult. You may therefore best work with respected literate representatives of the beneficiaries,
motivated to take actively and objectively part in the exercise, and who are aware that they should
especially provide information about the needs and problems of the most vulnerable people such as
women, children and elderly people. Additionally one should always try to obtain sufficient
information through assessments about what and how problems are perceived by different groups of
beneficiaries and what their needs and priorities are (for instance by including methods such as group
discussions with beneficiaries and interviews with individual beneficiaries in the assessment).
Chapter 2 : Program planning
p. 10
2.5Program objectives
Usually it is not possible (e.g. if resources and/or time are limited, or permission can not be
obtained for certain activities) or not necessary (e.g. others already work on some of the
objectives) to work on the achievement of all the objectives. Choices for one or a limited
number of objectives thus often need to be made. The choices will depend on factors such as:
 situational factors (see Box 2.1)
 the quality and completeness of the assessment (in other words: how well information
about the situation has been made available by the assessment)
 the proper analyses of the information obtained,
 the knowledge of the persons involved in the planning process,
 the personal preferences of the persons involved in the planning process,
 the methodologies used to prioritize the objectives (e.g. ranking methods can be used
which will contribute to more objective and more complete weighing of factors/variables
identified while other methods might leave more room for more subjective forms of
prioritizing),
 activities by other organizations,
 the extent to which achieving the considered objectives is believed to contribute to
achievement of the objective one level higher (the perceived relevance of objectives),
 resources and experience available within the involved organizations/people,
 required speed of action,
 assumptions about issues that can not easily be predicted or on which no information is
available.
Box 2.1 : Situational factors
(resources / threats / restrictions / potentials)
Situational factors are decisive for the possibilities to achieve certain objectives or to carry
out a certain strategy. They may limit or enhance the possibilities. They can be divided in:
1. Humans
(the refugees, your team, yourself)
2. Environment
(trees, topography, water sources, climate, soil, stone)
3. Infrastructures
(transport routes, communication systems)
4. Institutions
(national/local government, agencies/NGO’s, local commercial sector, local markets,
the military, rebels, warlords, religious leaders)
5. Finances
6. Information
(the media, universities, internet, existing reports, persons)
Chapter 2 : Program planning
p. 11
2.6Strategy
Once the program objectives have been determined a strategy will need to be developed for
achieving the objectives as optimal and quick as possible. Often a more detailed description of
the program objectives will be needed (with more detailed specifications, for instance with
regard to timing, quality and quantity of the services needed). This again depends on choices
made by the planning team but often also on specifications and/or rules of good practice
prescribed by the organizations involved (e.g. the ones determined by the Sphere project).
The choice for a certain strategy will depend largely on the same factors as the factors
involved in the selection of the program objectives. Important is to describe or have clearly in
mind what the assumptions are. Describe so-called killer assumptions: assumptions that, if not
true will make your strategy impossible to carry out. Define alternative strategies and
motivate why the assumptions are reasonable and the strategy chosen the most optimal one
for the situation. If at this point too many problems are encountered it may be necessary to
choose other program objectives or reformulate them or change to one of the alternative
strategies.
Box 2.2 : Example of two alternative strategies for achieving the same objective
Suppose you have a camp where you need water rapidly. There is a possibility of getting water
from a river at 1 km away or you could use an existing borehole plus reservoir located inside the
camp, which, however, needs a new submersible pump and generator.
Strategies can be to install a new pump in the borehole, to supply water from the river by water
tankering or to quickly implement pipelines plus a pump. As time is an important factor the
choice for one of these strategies will mainly depend on which can be realized most rapidly. This
again will depend on questions like what materials are available directly, and what knowledge
and skills do people available for the works have. Sometimes it is easy to motivate the choice for
a certain strategy, sometimes also different alternative strategies are possible and it may not be so
easy to choose. This manual concentrates on the phase after such a choice has already been made.
2.7Program design and activities
Once a strategy is defined the program will need to be designed. Activities may include:
 additional assessments
 design of facilities and decisions of the numbers needed of them
 design of non-material facilities (e.g. hygiene promotion services)
 design of the organizational structures needed (both for program implementation and
operation); this should include issues like task descriptions for the involved staff,
development of monitoring systems and reporting formats
 description of activities needed for the implementation of the facilities
Designs of facilities.
 Technical designs (e.g. designs for toilets or water systems).
 Other designs (e.g. a description of hygiene promotion methodologies and messages).
Organizational designs.
Set-ups and task divisions both for program implementation and program operation.
2.8Program success factors
Chapter 2 : Program planning
p. 12
The aim of each program is to be successful. Usually we mean with this that the program
objectives will be achieved as well and efficient as possible. However, whether or not a
program is successful also depends on what is 'considered' successful. This depends on things
like the context in which the program is analyzed (for instance from an efficiency point of
view a program may be very unsuccessful while at the same time the program may be an
enormous success in terms of effectiveness and impact), personal preferences and so on.
Success can thus be defined in different ways. It depends on the angles from which we look at
it. These ‘angles’ are reflected by the 'success factors' that give each part of success its own
domain.
Program objectives usually specify success factors to some extent through their wording and
the specifications (indicators) attached to them. If the program is well planned and executed
people working in those programs will obtain information with regard to these specifications
on a regular basis (monitoring). This will enable them to adapt, improve and redirect things
on a continuous basis, all in order to achieve the objectives in the best possible way and have
a successful program. Which success factors are included depends very much on the type of
program or even program part. With insect spraying programs for instance the success factor
'safety' is a very important one while in other programs this factor is not an issue simply
because these programs can hardly cause any danger.
Success factors are determined and used during planning:
 to determine what information is needed as baseline information in order to be able later
to determine whether the program has been successful,
 to develop the strategy, activities and objectives of the program, and, with regard to this,
to develop specifications and tasks for staff in such a way that the program will be
successful.
During program operation it is then important that people execute their tasks correctly. Part of
this is that they obtain, analyze, interpret, react to and partly report information regarding the
success factors on a regular basis to optimize the program, i.e. to make it as successful as
possible in terms of what was regarded to be 'successful' during the planning phase.
During program evaluations usually a number of success factors are investigated in order to
get an idea about what is considered by that evaluation 'the success of the program'.
Depending on the objectives of the evaluation the same or other success factors than used for
program planning and program operation are applied to ‘weigh’ the success of the program.
As success factors constitute such an important basis for programs it is good to have an
overview of the main success factors used in emergency programs and/or in their evaluations.
The most commonly distinguished success factors are:
Impact
The actual results of the program. In emergency programs usually 'impact' is used in the meaning of 'the contribution to the objective at the highest level', in other words, 'the contribution
to the health and well-being of the target population'. Information sources are usually health
statistics (usually available through curative health programs executed in the camp), information about the watsan situation, social circumstances, etc. With regard to watsan: if positive
trends in the incidences of water and sanitation related diseases go together with proof of well
functioning watsan programs (effectiveness) this is accepted as a strong indication that these
programs have a positive impact on health (the actual contribution of the programs to health
can not be quantified or completely proven as simultaneously also other factors such as other
programs, climate changes etc. do or may have an impact on those same diseases).
Chapter 2 : Program planning
p. 13
Other important types of impact may be:
 Environmental impact (which is often negative)
 Impact on others than the target population (which can be positive or negative)
 Unforeseen or unexpected effects (can be positive or negative)
 The contribution of the program to the protection of victims of conflict, the
stabilization of conflict, or the recovery of autonomy of the disaster victims. Often aid
agencies have these kind of things as general objectives and see this as an important
reason for being in an area. Protection from murder and harassment for instance may be
the first need of a population under threat and the presence of expatriates and the program
may help to prevent that the beneficiary population is harrassed or murdered to a certain
extent. This can therefore be a reason to run a program which then has as one of its
objectives (although often not spoken out or written down officially) 'protection of the
beneficiary population'. Conversely, the impact of a program may also enhance the
escalation of a conflict or bring beneficiaries in even more danger (which is then an
unexpected effect)5.
Efficiency
As it is difficult to assess the efficiency of a program in absolute terms it is better to ask
whether the program can be executed more efficiently (i.e. at lower cost) than asking how
efficient the program is. It may difficult to assess financial efficiency (e.g. a cost-effectiveness
analysis) or the interest may be in other forms of efficiency. In these cases one can assess:
 Efficiency of the organisation: important aspects may be material and financial bookkeeping, phasing/timing of activities (though this may be part of 'effectiveness' as well),
ability to react quickly/easily at changing circumstances, numbers of staff, kilometrage of
vehicles used in the program, etc.
 Efficiency of the approach and method used for implementation of the program. One
could assess for example whether an approach putting more emphasis on participation of
the beneficiaries or a better training of the local staff would result in a more efficient
program?
 Efficiency of timing and phasing the program. Resources will be used most efficiently
usually if timing of activities is optimized and if programs continue to a next phase as
soon as this is possible (it is for instance very cost-effective to shift as early as possible
from emergency type of program to a participative program in which beneficiaries execute
management largely themselves).
Functionality or effectiveness
The extent to which facilities (e.g. toilets, water taps, but also hygiene promotion methods and
messages) function properly. This comprises aspects such as the quality of the facilities and
services (which also includes proper timing of services), the numbers of facilities
implemented, their distribution over the camp, etc.
5
An example of activities of aid agencies that brought the targeted beneficiaries in more
danger. In November 1996 rebels attacked refugee camps in Zaire. Many refugees as a result returned
to Rwanda but in several parts the refugees fled into the Zairean mountains. Aid agencies were
allowed to operate in the area. They set up facilities along roads to provide direct services to the
refugees as soon as they would come out of the forests on the roads and to transport them back to
Rwanda as quick as possible. Special missions of the aid agencies went into the forests to find
refugees. Whenever they found them they communicated this over their radios to their basis in
Bukavu. However, in several of these occasions large groups of refugees disappeared suddenly after
they were discovered. Many people believe that the rebels, Interahamwe or other fighters got the news
about where to find the refugees by listening to the same radio channels and used this information to
go and kill them.
Chapter 2 : Program planning
p. 14
Utilization
The extent to which facilities are used properly. For instance how people use toilets, how
people use health messages promoted to them.
Contingency
One needs to have extra capacity for emergency purposes. An emergency can develop for
instance if in an existing camp suddenly large numbers of new arrivals settle down. In a water
program using pumps one should always have one or a few spare pumps, extra pipelines etc.
not only for possible new arrivals, but also for unexpected large breakdowns.
Safety
In some programs dangerous situations may develop. For instance during well construction
poisonous fumes may build up during digging of the well when water is pumped out by a
pump plus running generator lowered into the well. In spraying programs against insects there
is always a danger that staff and/or beneficiaries get poisoned by the chemicals used.
Sustainability
Usually this is an important factor in development programs. In programs in camps it may
also be of importance though. In hygiene promotion programs for instance the objective may
be that people continue to practice improved hygiene behaviors not only during their camp
period but also after they returned home. Sustainability definitely also is an issue in longerterm camps. In such camps usually the emphasis comes more and more on management by
the beneficiaries themselves mainly for cost-effectiveness reasons.
Relevance/appropriateness
This is about issues such as the extent to which a program works on problems that really do
exist and are perceived as such. The question is usually posed to assess whether the resources
could not better be used for solving other problems. Also the program should:
 Be in line with needs, priorities and policies of involved actors such as the beneficiaries,
other people living in the area, local and national authorities, the donors, the aid agency
itself (taking into account that these may change over time and that the program should
evolve with that).
 Be tailored to local circumstances (cultural, socio-economic, institutional, financial) and
enhance the use of locally available resources.
 Address one or more major problems and with that effectively contribute to the overall
objective (usually 'improve health and well-being of the target population')
 Identify and work on other to the program related problems that were not known initially
or that have developed later.
Replicability
This is about the question whether a program can be executed in more or less the same way in
other areas/camps as well.
Coordination
Looks into the effectiveness of coordination mechanisms.
Timeliness
Looks into the timing and phasing of programs and activities (see also under 'efficiency').
Phasing out/handing over
Looks into the way the program fits to longer term approaches.
Chapter 2 : Program planning
p. 15
Participation of beneficiaries
Participation has to do with the feeling of ownership and pride and as such is important for
the well-being of the beneficiaries (the feeling of having your destiny in your own hands
again; see also under 'Connectedness'). The degree of participation by the beneficiaries
usually is also a good indication for the cost-effectiveness of the program although this
definitely then needs to go together with other relevant information.
Connectedness
The extent to which the emergency program fits in/connects to the longer-term context.
Important aspects may be:
 Institutional aspects. Were adequate measures taken to prepare a withdrawal of the agency
and the handing-over to other organizations? Was the local institutional structure
sufficiently taken into account to permit an easier integration and handing over of the
project activities ?
 Environmental aspects. Will the environmental effects of the project endanger long-term
environmental protection and management?
 Socio-political aspects - gender issues. What are the effects of the program on existing
political and power relations, and gender relations, and how do these again affect the
actual program results.
 Self reliance - autonomy. Does the program contribute to a dependency syndrome among
the beneficiaries? Is an effort made to facilitate a recovery of self-reliant and autonomous
communities?
Coherence
All actors involved in the camps, including political, diplomatic, military, humanitarian,
should work towards the same overall objectives and their activities should be coordinated
and streamlined and be carried out with an effective division of labor. The program should fit
in this and actively contribute/take initiative to enhance a coherent overall approach.
Advocacy
Bearing witness to the fate of the victims in the program area. Important questions:
 Are the policy of the program and the agency in this matter coherent with the policies of
other organizations?
 Is there an effective cooperation with other humanitarian agencies, UN agencies, local
government and other relevant organisations?
 Does the program have staff who specifically have this aspect being described as one of
their tasks?
 How dangerous may advocating the fate of victims be to expatriate and local staff
working in the area?
Coverage
The program should as much as possible cover the whole target population equally. It should
also be assessed regularly whether the program should also cover other people, for instance
local people living near the camps.
Chapter 2 : Program planning
p. 16
2.9The place of this manual in the planning process
In this document examples of organizational designs have been worked out for the operation
of a number of standard water and sanitation programs commonly found in camps. It is
believed that these examples are needed because:
 making organizational designs for program operation is a very time consuming activity,
time which field managers and their staff usually do not sufficiently have,
 it will help to make field managers and their staff more aware of the importance of proper
designs for the operation of their programs
 working out the design of a program operation is very complex requiring a high level of
knowledge and experience, and
 there is hardly any other good documentation available on this subject.
Much emphasis has been put on the gathering, analysis, use and reporting of information in
the example designs. This is believed to be the backbone of each and every program. Proper
information systems enable people to react properly and timely on all kinds of changes and to
further optimize the program for the achievement of its objectives. In determining the kind of
information needed we have based ourselves on the recommended minimum objectives we
defined for each of the programs and their specifications. On top of that we have looked at
which success factors we believed were important for the different activities and tasks in the
programs and included aspects of these in the information systems if they were not yet
included yet. The aim of all this is that programs operated according to the standard
organizational designs provided in this manual will be successful and are regarded as such
even if they would be evaluated on the basis of analysis of different success factors.
2.10 Recommended literature
 Davis and Lambert (1995). Engineering in emergencies.
 House and Reed (1997). Emergency water sources. Guidelines for selection and treatment.
 NORAD. The logical framework approach (LFA); handbook for objective oriented project
planning.
 ZOPP manual
Chapter 2 : Program planning
p. 17
3.
General tasks
3.1 Introduction.
This chapter describes a number of general operational tasks that are important for all water
and sanitation programs executed in camps. They are:
Obtaining and interpreting health statistics
Information gathering; description of some general techniques
Population census
Tasks of general support staff
3.2Obtaining and interpreting health statistics.
3.2.1 Using health statistics to assess the impact of a watsan program
Good health of the camp population is usually the highest level objective aimed at by all
programs in a camp. It is therefore necessary to obtain information on the extent to which
good health is realized. Information about the health of people is provided by health statistics:
data on diseases (morbidity data) and deaths (mortality data).
Always keep in mind though that information about the health situation in a camp is not
enough to know whether a water or sanitation program functions well. There are always other
factors that also influence the health of the people at the same time. Other programs in the
camp for instance and the season do have an impact on health (the rainy season for instance
often causes a large increase in malaria).
Because of all these involved factors it is impossible to draw conclusions about the
functioning of a water or sanitation program on basis of the health statistics alone. If for
instance the health situation in a camp is very poor this does not automatically mean that the
water or sanitation program is functioning badly and vice versa. To get a good idea about the
impact of a water or sanitation program one should therefore combine information obtained
from health statistics with information about the program success factors (see paragraph 2.8).
Usually if positive trends in the incidences of water and sanitation related diseases go together
with proof of well functioning programs (effectiveness) this is accepted as a strong indication
that the programs do have a positive impact on health.
In this paragraph we pay attention to health statistics. We thereby concentrate on diseases
which are or can be related to water and sanitation and are often common in camps. Such
diseases are: diarrhea, malaria, respiratory tract infections, eye infections, skin infections,
measles, meningitis and tuberculosis. Each of these diseases is shortly described in Appendix
11.
Chapter 3 : General tasks
p. 17
3.2.2 How health statistics are obtained
Data on morbidity and mortality can be obtained in the following ways:
 Health statistics from curative health facilities: this is in camps often the most important
source of information about health. The data are obtained from IPD’s and OPD’s1 . With the
health statistics from IPD’s and OPD’s one can determine the incidence levels of the diseases.
The incidence level of a disease is the number of patients diagnosed with that disease per
week per 10.000 of the target population. To be able to determine incidence levels it is thus
also needed to know the total number of camp inhabitants; often also incidence levels in the
different camp parts are determined for which population figures for the different parts should
be known. Health statistics from curative health facilities, if of good quality, often give a good
indication of the health situation in a camp. One should keep in mind though that often not all
cases of the diseases included in the statistics pass through the health system. Some sick people
do not attend the health facilities, especially in case of diseases as watery diarrhea, which are
by many people regarded not worthwhile to go to a health clinic for. Important is to control:
 whether the different health centers use the same diagnosis and registration procedures (if
health facilities are run by different organizations these may differ),
 whether the figures of both in and out-patients are included and to what extent the patients
were camp inhabitants (often also local people living near the camp visit the health
facilities which may wrongly push up incidence levels if not accounted for),
 to what extent the target population has access to the health facilities and actually uses
them,
 the quality of diagnosing and other quality issues (see also Appendix 12).
Often it is better to look at trends in the health statistics over time instead of interpreting the
absolute values of the statistics. Looking at trends is also useful if the quality of the data is not
very good (as long as the statistics are obtained over time in the same way the trends may then
still give quite a good indication of the developments). However some idea about absolute
values is needed (e.g. a watsan manager should be able to recognize high malaria incidence
even if the figure has been more or less the same for a long period).
 Medical surveillance: surveys carried out to determine the prevalence of certain diseases. The
prevalence of a disease is the percentage of the target group that at the moment of the
surveillance actually has the disease. Medical surveillance is often carried out if an epidemic of
a certain disease is suspected. They may also be carried out on a regular basis in case of
endemic diseases that could become epidemic.
 Death registrations: many health programs have staff who register the deaths (and the death
causes as far as possible) in the camp during house visits (often the same staff who also carry
out the medical surveillances and follow-ups on specific cases). The deaths are also sometimes
registered at the graveyards (although these statistics are often incomplete as many people bury
their deaths without registering them). To stimulate death registration health programs often
offer goods (e.g. a sheet to cover the body of the dead person) in return for registering a dead
person (controlled by health staff who also then determine and register the cause of death as far
as possible).
In this paragraph we pay attention mainly to the health statistics from curative health facilities as
this is usually the most important source of health data available in camps while the other sources
of information are often not or only infrequently available and much less reliable.
Two kinds of curative health facilities are distinguished: In-patient Departments (IPD’s), facilities where patients stay
to be treated, and Outpatient Departments (OPD’s), facilities where people come only to get a medical treatment
and/or consultation and leave directly afterwards.
1
Chapter 3 : General tasks
p. 18
3.2.3 Analysis of health statistics from curative health facilities
The graphs on the following pages give an overview of thresholds that can be distinguished for
general mortality as well as morbidity incidences of diseases related to water and sanitation. They
are based on an analysis of health statistics from curative health facilities (including the
interpretations by the producers of the documents containing those statistics) from a large number
of curative health programs executed in camps in Africa and Asia during recent years (1990 to
1996). Only the thresholds determined for general mortality are based on other data as well, such
as statistics from death registrations and the thresholds proposed in WHO guidelines.
Two threshold levels are distinguished in the graphs for each disease: a ‘high level’ above which
it was generally concluded in the documents studied that there really was a large problem with
regard to the considered disease, and an ‘acceptable level’ below which the general conclusion
was, both in emergencies and non-emergencies, that there was no problem with regard to the
considered disease.
Two types of incidences are distinguished: incidence of under fives which is the incidence among
children up to an age of 5 years, and crude incidence which is the incidence among all people
(under fives + over fives together).
Morbidity and mortality figures are also expressed as a proportion: the percentage of the total
number of consultations in which again a distinction is made between 'under fives' and 'crude'.
The graphs only cover part of the watsan related diseases found in camps because of the other
diseases insufficient data were found in the reports studied. For an extensive description of watsan
related diseases in camps see Appendix 11.
Before using the graphs please be aware that they are indicative and first read
paragraph 3.2.2 and the explanation of how to work with the graphs further in this
paragraph carefully!
Chapter 3 : General tasks
p. 19
Morbidity
Incidence (number of
cases/10.000/week)
Proportion (% of total
no. of consultations)
Incidence (no. of
cases/10.000/week)
Proportion (% of total no. of
deaths)
<5
<5
crude
<5
crude
<5
-
-
14
7
7
3.5
25%
10%
22%
10%
25%
10%
22%
10%
4.0
2.0
3.5
1.8
1.8
1.0
crude
Disease
Threshold
Mortality general
high
acceptable
-
-
Diarrheal
diseases
high
acceptable
high
acceptable
high
acceptable
200
90
150
75
100
30
60
100
50
65
20
Diarrhea (general indication
for all diarrheas together)
acute watery diarrhea
Bloody diarrhea (=
dysentery)
Cholera
Fevers
FUO (includes all suspected
malaria cases)1
Malaria (lab confirmed)
Typhoid fever
Filariasis
Yellow fever
Dengue
Mortality
crude
-
-
25%
10%
25%
10%
action needed for each individual suspected or confirmed case
high
acceptable
high
acceptable
high
acceptable
high
acceptable
high
acceptable
high
acceptable
200
100
100
20
30%
15%
1
2
0.5
20%
10%
FUO = Fever of Unknown Origin. All malaria cases should be included in this disease group with exception of the malaria cases confirmed by proper blood tests (which in camps is almost never the case; therefore, if in
the statistics malaria figures are given, verify whether these are suspected or lab confirmed cases of malaria). For camps where malaria transmission usually is low: If the weekly incidence of FUO increases to two times
or more, a cross sectional survey has to be carried out to determine the proportion of malaria cases among cases with FUO. If the proportion of positive bloodslides (obtain through microscopic survey) for P. falciparum in
this sample is 50% or more (excluding new arrivals), this means that there is a malaria outbreak and practical measures have to be taken immediately (make sure that the blood smear testing is well done: often badly done
and giving far too high percentages) (in the camps with low transmission investigated in Rwanda, Tanzania and Zaire this proportion was usually less than 20%).
Chapter 3 : General tasks
p. 20
Morbidity
Disease
Threshold
Incidence (number of
cases/10.000/week)
Proportion (% of total
no. of consultations)
Incidence (no. of
cases/10.000/week)
Proportion (% of total no. of
deaths)
<5
<5
<5
<5
crude
Skin diseases
Scabies + other
skin diseases
high
acceptable
80
40
Pneumonial
diseases
RTI general
high
acceptable
high
acceptable
high
acceptable
170
LRTI
URTI
Tuberculosis
high
acceptable
Eye infections
high
acceptable
Measles
Meningitis
not sure whether these
figures are for
vaccinated or not
vaccinated populations
high
acceptable
high
acceptable
Mortality
65
crude
crude
crude
12% (??)
5%
1.6
1.0
150
20%
10%
20%
10%
35
3%
20
10
1.5/10,000/week during two consecutive weeks or doubling of cases each week during a three week period
7.0 (??)
Chapter 3 : General tasks
p. 21
How to work with the graphs
The figures in the first row of each disease indicate the thresholds regarded as ‘high’. Even in
emergencies the incidence levels found should not get above these figures. The figures in the
second row of each disease indicate the thresholds that are regarded as ‘acceptable’. The aim
should be to achieve these or lower incidence levels as fast as possible, especially in nonemergencies.
An appropriate way of using the graphs is as follows:
1. Always keep in mind that the graphs are indicative. Large differences may and do exist
between different camps due to factors as discussed in Appendix 12 of this document.
Therefore please read this appendix carefully in conjunction with the below advises on how the
graphs can be used.
2. The field manager should obtain health statistics from the curative health programs as often as
possible. Usually they are made available with weekly intervals. Look at the additional
remarks for FUO’s and malaria at the bottom of the first graph. Appendix 11 contains
descriptions of the diseases.
3. There should be at least some idea about the extent to which the health statistics effectively
cover the whole target population and similarly the extent to which they also cover non-target
populations. The figures should be adjusted for these sources of error as much as possible (if
this is not possible the statistics should be used with even more care, i.e. don't rush into
drawing conclusions but first investigate further; hurry up though if the indications are
worrying). Further there should be an idea about whether there are differences between the
statistics in the different camp parts. If there are large differences each camp part should be
looked at separately. Finally there should be a good idea about the quality of the statistics (the
less sure you are about the quality of the data the less you can draw conclusions from them).
See further Appendix 12.
4. In general the ‘incidence levels’ in the graphs should be given more weight than ‘the
proportion levels’.
If all this is taken into account, assessed and possibly adjusted for, continue:
5. For the diseases of which the incidence levels are at or below the ‘acceptable’ levels given in
the graphs no specific action is usually needed unless a clearly rising trend can be
distinguished making it likely that within due time the acceptable level will be surpassed.
6. For the diseases of which the incidence levels are between the ‘acceptable’ and ‘high’
thresholds one should distinguish between emergencies and non-emergencies.
Emergencies: get an idea about whether the levels can be brought down by improvements in
the watsan programs or by taking up new watsan related activities. Investigation methods can
be quick informal observations in the camp by yourself and/or program staff and discussions
with: managers and staff of other programs in the camp, program staff, key resource persons
and beneficiaries. However, if resources and time are too limited for additional investigations
or measures one can for the time being accept the levels. The closer the figures are to the
‘high’ thresholds or the clearer there are upward trends in the statistics, the more caution is
needed though.
Non-emergencies: basically being above the ‘acceptable’ thresholds can not be allowed,
especially if there is an upward trend in the health statistics or if figures are close to the ‘high’
thresholds. Therefore, discuss together with managers and staff of all programs in the camp,
key resource persons and beneficiaries about the possible causes and how the levels can be
Chapter 3 : General tasks
p. 22
brought down. A detailed assessment may be needed, especially if the causes are not well
known and/or if after a few weeks of implementing additional measures no considerable
improvements have been realized. Depending on the expected causes the assessment may
cover all or only certain programs and it may thus also be needed to focus the assessment on
the watsan programs. In case it is difficult to find any clear causes you may have to investigate
the reliability of the statistics again. The discussions and investigations will need to give an
answer to the question whether and how the watsan and/or other programs will need to be
improved. Possibly a complete new program will be needed to tackle certain specific problems
not dealt with yet by any of the other programs. In some cases experts may have to be brought
in (especially in case figures go towards the high levels and in case of new activities).
7. In case incidence levels surpass the ‘high’ thresholds in the graphs immediate action is
needed both in emergencies and non-emergencies. This means that directly a thorough
investigation is needed (if the causes and remedial actions needed are not very clear) followed
by immediate action. Depending on the outcome of the investigations (in which the watsan
managers and staff should actively take part together with managers and staff of other
programs in the camp, key resource persons and beneficiaries) immediate action will probably
also be needed in the watsan programs. It will probably be needed to quickly bring in experts
and extra resources for the investigations and immediate implementation of remedial actions.
8. In the weekly and monthly reports of the field watsan managers health statistics need to be
presented together with a textual interpretation and comparison to the thresholds distinguished
in the graphs.
Some examples of how statistics were interpreted in a few camps
///to be included///
Chapter 3 : General tasks
p. 23
3.3Information gathering: description of some general techniques
In this paragraph we pay attention to a number of information gathering techniques which are
important for and used by many of the actors working in drinking water and sanitation programs
in camps. The information gathering techniques described in this paragraph are:
 informal information gathering
 structured observations
 interviewing
 meetings
3.3.1 Informal information gathering.
Who can/should use the technique:
All staff
When to use the technique:
Continuously in all situations. However, informal information gathering is especially important in
emergencies as in these circumstances very often there is insufficient infrastructure (people,
equipment), time or security available to execute the structured ways of information gathering that
would normally be required.
Explanation of the technique:
Informal information gathering is information coming to people unplanned and without the use of
any methodology for it. It is the information gathered, without having planned to gather it,
through informal and unstructured every day observations/talks/meetings/discussions with/by
program staff, managers and staff of other programs, yourself, camp inhabitants and so on.
Importance of the technique; what it can be used for:
Watsan staff (including the manager) can use informally obtained information for:
 Signaling: obtaining knowledge about problems for which no program activities exist yet.
 Cross-checking: beside all the information obtained through structured ways informally
obtained information can provide us additional information about our or other programs in the
camp which can be used to cross-check whether programs do function as good as the
structured information tells us and whether the structured information gathering of those
programs in itself functions well.
 Provision of information about subjects for which there are no structured information
gathering methods in place in the program (e.g. because it is extremely difficult to obtain
information about certain topics with structured methods, because structured methods would
require too much time, because the equipment needed for structured information gathering is
not available or because there is insufficient experience among people to work with certain
structured information gathering methods).
(Remark: there are several structured and semi-structured information gathering methods that can
have the same functions, e.g. during meetings, often much information can be obtained, if
questions are posed in the right way and there is a respect and trust relation, important as a crosscheck, to signal new problems or to provide information that can not easily be obtained in another
way; often informal, semi-structured and/or structured information gathering methods can/should
be used simultaneously to obtain better proof about things).
Chapter 3 : General tasks
p. 24
Example of use of technique:
1. You are working somewhere and you happen to see or hear something of which, after you
think about it, you feel it could be of importance in one way or another for one of the programs
in the camp (cross-check function), or more general for the health of the people in the camp
while no activities exist yet with relation to that information (signaling).
2. A hygiene promotion program pays attention to handwashing after toilet use. In such programs
it is hardly ever measured though whether the efforts have effect or whether people already
know about the need for it and practice the behavior (explaining the need for that behavior in
that case is not necessary any more). Unless information is obtained about the effects or
relevance of the efforts it remains unknown whether the efforts are useful and how they
should/could be improved. It may be difficult to obtain structured information though.
Observing for instance how many people wash their hands after coming out of a toilet requires
much time and effort. Most hygienists may be able to give quite reliable information though.
They obtain the information every day through informal talks with people, their own
unstructured observations when they happen to pass a latrine and see that people don’t wash
their hands. Thy also know because they are themselves part of the people, and thus have a
good understanding of the habits, culture, etc.
Remarks:
Disadvantages of informal information gathering:
 difficult to find out whether or to what extent the information obtained through informal ways
of information gathering is correct,
 often not or hardly possible to assess the obtained information against the objectives of your
programs.
Example of the disadvantages:
If you walk through the camp and you happen to see a few rats, which you have never seen before
in the camp you may get the feeling that, may be rats have infested the camp and could become a
plague. But you are not sure whether these rats are few and possibly have always been there. And
even if there is a rat control program in the camp in which specifications have been formulated for
the maximum allowable number of rats per area you will not be able to assess your informal
observations against these. The only thing you can do is to take your feeling serious and further
investigate with more formal and structured information gathering methods that should enable you
to be surer and assess the information against the specifications set. And this exactly often is the
importance of informal information gathering: it gives a first signal which should, if listened to
and taken serious, trigger further investigations if the signs are clear enough that there might be a
problem.
Despite the shortcomings (subjective, incomplete) informally obtained information often contains
at least some valid indication and it may be the only possible way of getting information about
certain subjects. So make program staff aware that they should be receptive to it, stimulate it,
take it serious, use it and report it! Especially when time or access (e.g. due to insecurity) to the
area is limited informal ways of information gathering may be one of the few options left to get
information. Whenever they are in the camp, both manager and all program staff should regularly
stop and talk to the camp inhabitants, not only to the men but also to women and children. Ask:
‘what problems do you have?’ Don’t ask: ‘what vector problems do you have?’ (because then
suddenly everybody has vector problems), or ‘Do you have a problem with drinking water?’
(because the answer will then always be yes).
Most important with regard to informal information gathering is that everybody should be aware
of its importance and what can and should be done with it. Program staff should be made
aware that their ‘antenna’s’ for informal in many circumstances may be the only or best way of
getting information and that they should share that information with others, even if it’s only a
feeling or intuition.
Chapter 3 : General tasks
p. 25
Sharing informal information with others is a good method to verify/cross-check the validity of
the information: if others have similar experiences independent of each other the chance increases
that the informally obtained information is at least valid to some extent. In case of doubt, don’t
ask others ‘did you also hear/see that?’ or ‘do you also think this happened?’, but ask ‘what do
you think about this subject?’ or ‘what did you see when you were there yesterday?’ (with regard
to the example of the rats you could for instance ask staff who work in the area were you saw the
rats: ‘have you seen anything unusual or worrying in that area?’ then if they say ‘yes’ you ask
them to explain what). So, if many people tell you about the same feelings or ideas they have
about something or have heard or seen the same things (telling this to you independently of each
other without the possibility that they have agreed on a certain message on beforehand with each
other), then the chance that the information is right is increasing. This can even be structured by
counting numbers of people who feel or have heard or seen something and compare them against
the number of people (who were in the same position in which they could also have developed
that feeling or have seen something) who don’t feel it that way or have not heard or seen anything.
///other methods for analyzing/using informally gathered information are needed///
3.3.2 Structured observations.
Structured observations are observations which are well planned and organized on beforehand and
which are meant to yield quantitative data. The data have an absolute value in the sense that they
can be used to assess them against the specifications for the objectives of the involved programs.
The data may also have a relative importance though: if similar observations have been done
before they may be used to determine trends which again may be used to assess whether the
developments may lead in time to achieving objectives of the involved programs. The main sorts
of structured observations are:
1. Continuous observations: observations that are carried out over an extended period of time,
e.g. a few hours but sometimes longer. Examples: number of people washing their hands after
leaving the toilet in comparison to the total number of people who visit the toilet, observed
during a couple of hours; no. of times that people in a household scoop out water from a
container while touching the water with their hands against no. of times that people scoop
water without touching the water with their hands. Observation method: the observer should sit
somewhere inconspicuously (if possible) for about 2 to 3 hours, but where he can see well
what is going on, and register the observations done. Analysis: with regard to hygiene
behaviors observed: calculate the percentage of the people observed to practice a proper
behavior = 100 x no. of people who practiced the proper behavior/total no. of people observed
with regard to that behavior. If the percentages found in different parts of the camp do not
differ much, calculate the average percentage for the whole camp, otherwise calculate also the
percentages for each of the camp parts. Beside this usually the observer also gives textual
comments.
2. Spot-check observations: observations and registration made during a limited period of time
directly after arrival at a certain site Examples: shelter has drain way or not, shelter has solid
waste pit or not, water reservoir in household is covered or not. Analysis: count the total
number observed in each part of the camp and the number fulfilling the criterion and calculate
the percentage, e.g. 100 x number of no. of shelters with drainage in a certain camp part/total
no. of shelters observed in that part (report the results of the analysis of the camp as a whole
and also per part of the camp if differences between the parts are large).
3. Rating check observations: observations which require a judgement by the observer (can be
spot checks or continuous). Examples: numbers of ‘clean’ toilets against number of ‘dirty’
toilets. It should thus be discussed on beforehand how the criteria are interpreted, in this
Chapter 3 : General tasks
p. 26
example, what is considered ‘clean’ and what is ‘dirty’. Analysis: same as with spot check
observations.
Chapter 3 : General tasks
p. 27
3.3.3 Interviewing.
This paragraph gives an overview of what is generally considered as interviewing techniques.
There is some overlap with the paragraphs on informal information gathering and meetings that
basically make use or are almost similar to several of the interviewing techniques described here.
Open or unstructured interviews:




Informal conversational interviews: spontaneous talks with individuals/groups (see par.
3.3.1).
Key informant interviews: informal interviews with people who have a certain specific
knowledge on the subject of interest.
Focus group discussions: an open discussion amongst a small group of people on a
specific subject in which the interviewer acts as a facilitator, stimulating the participants to
keep discussing the subject until no new points emerge (see further par. 3.3.4).
Topic focused interviews: the interviewer has a list with a number of topics that should be
discussed during the interview and formulates the questions him/herself during the
interview.
Semi-structured or standardised open-ended interviews:
Interviews guided by a list of open-ended questions. The questions are posed in exact wording and
order as written down. But they allow the respondent to give his or her own words, thoughts and
insights in answering the questions. The questions are formulated after a qualitative investigation.
This interviewing technique is often used in household surveys where the results should be
comparable to the results of other household surveys (see further chapter 7).
Structured interviews:
Interviews with closed instead questions which limit the answers to a predetermined set of
choices.
3.3.4 Meetings.
Meetings are events in which more than one person come together at a certain location and
communicate with each other and sometimes work at the location on certain issues to accomplish
a task (mainly formulating/documenting things together). Exchange of information between the
participants and the possible facilitators is a central purpose of meetings. Another purpose is often
decision making. The following types of meetings are discussed here:
 informal group discussions
 focus group discussions
 open group discussions
 mass meetings
 workshops
3.3.4.1 Informal group discussion
Who can/should use the technique:
All staff.
When to use the technique:
Staff use this technique often when gathering spontaneously after or during work, exchanging
information. It is of special importance also for hygienists who meet with small groups of camp
inhabitants as part of their work.
Explanation of the technique:
Chapter 3 : General tasks
p. 28
Informal group discussions are gatherings of groups of people discussing things without any
planning or formal preparations made for it and usually without a specific subject set. Such
discussions are one of the ways for informal gathering of information, described in par. 3.3.1 and
also shortly in par. 3.3.3.
3.3.4.2 Focus group discussion
Who can/should use the technique:
Mainly: manager, higher level staff, and hygiene promoters.
When to use the technique:
Whenever there is a need to discuss with people a subject in detail.
Explanation of the technique:
A focus group discussion is a discussion among a small group of people on a specific subject. The
group consists usually of not more than 6 to 15 persons in order to make it possible for each
participant to take actively part in the discussion. There is a facilitator, who has prepared the
discussion and stimulates each participant (and especially those who are shy or less active in the
discussion for whatever reason) to keep discussing the subject until no new points emerge. The
facilitator mainly asks open questions (questions that can not be answered with yes or no) and
sometimes explains some things if the participants really lack knowledge. The subject of
discussion can be decided on by the facilitator, or, which is preferable, by the participants
themselves or by a few representatives of them (which should then be done some time before the
meeting allowing the facilitator to prepare the discussion about that subject).
Importance of the technique; what it can be used for:
1. To enable people to build up knowledge and become aware themselves about the subject
2. To obtain information about the people’s knowledge, awareness, ideas, beliefs, possibilities or
restrictions with respect to the subject.
People learn best and also become aware about things (i.e. built up motivation to really practice
the things) by discovering those things themselves. Therefore to transmit knowledge and stimulate
people to become aware in first instance the best thing to do is to ask questions about the subject
only and let people discover the answers and form their own opinions through discussion among
themselves. This motivates people much more to be open to the subjects discussed and to accept
and do something with the outcome of the discussion while it also increases people’s self-esteem
(we knew all this ourselves!).
Example of use of technique:
Focus group discussions are often held with groups of camp inhabitants to discuss one or a few
hygiene behaviors (the hygiene promoter then being the facilitator; see chapter 7). It can also be
held with staff to discuss certain things with regard to the work (higher level staff or the manager
then usually being the facilitator).
Methods used:
 open questions following up upon each other
 pocket charts (optional)
 explanation of things
 registration of the discussion either through writing or with a recorder (optional)
Preparing a focus group discussion:
For asking the questions the facilitator can make a list of the aspects he would like to pose
questions about. The list should be such that if people have discussed all the questions they should
all have a good understanding and awareness of all aspects involved with the subject (including
Chapter 3 : General tasks
p. 29
different opinions etc. so that people can form their own opinion based on a complete overview of
all aspects involved and all opinions).
Chapter 3 : General tasks
p. 30
Some hints for the facilitator on how to act during the meeting:
Keep in mind what your role is
1. To stimulate the participants to focus the discussion on the subject and ensure that all
participants are enabled to look at the subject from all possible angles and standpoints so that
each of them will have a complete overview and understanding of all aspects and be able to
form a well-balanced opinion about it (which not necessarily has to be the same opinion as the
facilitator or other participants; the strong convincement behind it is that people are capable
and should be respected to form their own ideas and opinions which are best for and/or most
suitable to them, as long as they have been enabled to build up an understanding of all aspects
involved with the subject).
2. To observe and listen carefully and learn about what people already know, what knowledge is
lacking, to what extent people are aware and why or why not they do practice or use the
knowledge with regard to the subject. Focus group discussions may for instance be held to find
out what hygiene subjects need attention and in what form. The obtained information should be
fed-back to the involved programs and be used to improve those programs. To be able to
execute this role well it may be necessary to record the discussion. This can be done by
someone writing down the things said/discussed, or by a tape recorder.
Prepare the meeting
Develop a number of questions with regard to the subject. The questions should follow-up on each
other. For instance when promoting latrines and the need to keep them clean you can start with
questions like ‘Where do we go to the toilet?’ , then ‘What kind of toilet do we prefer?’, then
‘Why do we prefer such toilets’, then ‘What is better for our health, going to the preferred toilet,
or doing it the way we do it now?’, then ‘Why?’ etc. (see also the example lists of questions for
group discussions with regard to hygiene subjects in Box ..., chapter 7).
Invite suitable participants
Invite relatively homogenous groups that have something in common in relation to the topic
(directly or indirectly), for instance groups of women, leaders, or persons from a particular area
where certain problems exist. Let the participants decide on the place and time. Six to twelve
participants is often cited as ideal but do not turn people away. Try to sit somewhere where there
is privacy. This may not always be possible though (ask the participants on beforehand whether
they know a suitable place). The discussion can also be held under a tree or outside someone’s
shelter. If more people attend the meeting, explain why initially you wanted a small group (the
reason for a small group is that you want each participant to have enough possibility to come
forward with his or her answers, ideas, opinions) but that everybody is welcome.
Introduce yourself to the group
Explain the subject of the meeting clearly. Express the hope that everybody, including yourself,
will learn from the meeting. Explain that there are no right or wrong answers to the questions
(especially in cases where opinions with regard to the questions are important). Then you can ask
the participants to first decide on how they will discuss. Usually people decide then together that
they should only speak one at a time (otherwise ask them to do so), that everybody should be able
to give their opinion, sometimes they decide to appoint someone among themselves to record the
things said, etc.
Ask open questions as much as possible
These are questions that give room to the respondent to formulate her or his own answer without
any limits to it and that can not be answered with yes or no. During the discussions use the
opinions and things said before as a basis for the coming questions, if necessary adapting the
questions that were planned to be posed.
Chapter 3 : General tasks
p. 31
Chapter 3 : General tasks
p. 32
Clarify things and obtain information by asking questions and sometimes by explaining
If it appears that people do not know or understand certain things it is necessary to first clarify
these. This should preferably be done by asking additional questions that may help them, when
discussing those questions, to find the answers themselves and obtain a better understanding. If
necessary explain certain things shortly, but take care not to interfere too much in the discussions
and restrict yourself to providing knowledge only and not pushing a certain (your) opinion
forward. So don’t say ‘you must wash your hands’ because this is a conclusion that people will
hopefully draw themselves once they understand why that is important. Instead you may decide to
explain how diseases can be transmitted (use drawings etc.) and ask people what they think they
can do to prevent such disease transmissions if you have the feeling that the knowledge about this
is lacking and that this is the main reason for not practicing the desired behavior (in this case
handwashing).
If it appears that people do have the required knowledge but still don’t wash their hands don’t ask
‘why don’t you wash your hands?’ as this may be interpreted by people as a conviction. Instead
ask things in the third person: ‘What do you think could be the reason for people not to wash their
hands?’ or 'what could be a reason for people to wash their hands?'. Also if the discussed subject
is or could be in the taboo sphere it may be better to refer to things in the third person. For
instance don’t ask ‘what do you use for protection during menstruation?’ but ask ‘what do women
use to protect themselves during menstruation?’.
It may for instance be that things like cultural habits, beliefs or preferences, religion etc. have a
relation to the subject and cause people to practice an undesirable behavior even if they have
knowledge about it. You may then better emphasize these aspects and ask questions about them
(to see whether within these cultural issues acceptable solutions can be found) instead of
approaching the subject from a scientific point of view. If people ask your opinion of something
answer for instance that you will participate more once you have heard their views.
Inform people about existing programs and initiatives related to the subject
Give the participants information about existing programs and other initiatives related to the
discussed subject. Explain how they function, who they can contact about it, how they can get
assistance with regard to the subject etc.
In case you are recording the discussion with a tape recorder
When recording the discussion with a tape recorder make sure that the recorder can register
everybody’s remarks (women often speak very softly and there may be background noises).
Therefore it may be necessary to sit in a place where background noises are limited. Also ask
people to speak loudly and don’t talk through each other. Remember that people may be more shy
if their remarks are recorded in one way or another which may rehold certain people to speak
openly thus causing the discussion to not be fully representative and not providing all the
information and opinions one would otherwise have obtained (so if you are afraid for this effect,
don’t use a recorder). If not recording the difficulty is that you will have to remember all the
relevant things said write them down or memorize them by head in order to feed-back the
important issues to the involved program.
Ending the meeting
Bring the meeting to a close when you feel that the subject has been exhausted. If problems have
been identified try also to get people to consider any possible solutions, especially what they can
do themselves to solve the problems. Ask them how they intend to implement them.
Thank the participants for their contribution to the discussion and their time. Ask them whether
they think that everybody has fully participated and that all things were sufficiently discussed. If
not ask them to speak out further and continue the discussion trying to further motivate especially
shy people to speak out.
Chapter 3 : General tasks
p. 33
If you think it is useful/important you can ask the participants whether they would like to be
involved in further discussion groups, if you could meet up with them again to discuss any further
conclusions you or they have come to or discuss things that were/are not clear, or to prepare for
follow-up actions resulting from the meeting. Also explain them that you will feedback the results
to your program and that you will keep them informed about anything done with that feedback.
Be careful though not to promise things of which you are not 100% sure that they can/will be
realized!
Learning facilitators learn:
People who are involved in training facilitators about the techniques and skills needed for focus
group discussions should keep in mind that they should use the same approach as used in focus
group discussions to stimulate/enable the trainees to build up knowledge and become aware. Only
if facilitators have a full understanding and awareness of the usefulness of the approach (i.e.
enabling people to learn through asking questions) will they use it themselves. So, have focus
group discussions with the facilitators and ask them questions, only explaining things with regard
to pure knowledge (for instance giving a talk about the principles behind behaviors of people and
the relation with Knowledge, Attitude and Practice; see chapter 7), not pushing forward the
opinion that they should use this approach. Such trainings thus need careful preparations.
3.3.4.3 Open group discussion
Who can/should use the technique:
When to use the technique:
Explanation of the technique:
Importance of the technique; what it can be used for:
Example of use of technique:
Remarks:
3.3.4.4 Mass meetings
Importance of the technique; what it can be used for:
The purpose of a mass meeting is to have contact during a short time with a very large group of
people (up to 4000 people or even more is possible) in order to transmit certain important
messages effectively during that very short time and in that same time learn about what the major
problems and priority needs are as perceived by the people attending the meeting.
Who can/should use the technique:
Manager(s) of water and sanitation program(s).
When to use the technique:
Mass meetings may be held when things change rapidly suddenly either in an emergency or when
there is a threat that the situation may develop into an emergency.
Explanation of the technique:
The effect of a mass meeting is usually caused by the fact that a by the beneficiaries regarded
important official person calls for and heads the meeting (which also ensures that people will turn
up in large numbers). This person can be the manager of a program, a tribal, political or military
Chapter 3 : General tasks
p. 34
leader etc. In water and sanitation programs it is often the manager of one of the programs who
calls for and heads the meeting, assisted by senior program staff.
Also the subject of the meeting is important. We think that spreading the news that you want to
talk about a certain subject but that people can also express their problems, needs and priorities
will assure a high turn up.
The person heading the meeting uses his influence through his status and by the things he says to
convince people of the messages he wants to promote. Instead of concentrating on the message
only it is better to start with asking the people to tell you about what they feel are their main
problems and needs. This will give you an idea of the major problems people are facing and
perceiving as a priority to them. The fact that you are willing to listen to them and take them
serious will ‘open up’ people (invite especially women to talk in the meeting and discuss their
problems). They will understand that you are also ready to listen to them, which creates trust and
respect.
This however also has consequences: the fact that you ask people to come forward and express
their problems and priorities raises expectations! It means that using this approach will oblige you
to do something with the information they provide to you! We recommend acting as follows:
With regard to the problems brought forward which are not concerning your program you can tell
them that you can’t do much about it, only that you will pass on the information to the relevant
programs in the camp and feed-back to some of the representatives of the beneficiaries about what
has come out of that (which you will then also have to do!). Then concentrate on the things
brought forward by the people which are concerning your program (discuss and agree with them
on what they will do about it themselves and what the program can/will do) and only after that, if
still necessary, you can continue discussing the messages you want to promote to the people.
To prepare the meeting:
1. Discuss with others involved about the need of the meeting and the subject(s) to be dealt with.
2. Visit community leaders to inform them about the meeting, the time and location, and the
purpose (and ask their opinion about it; discuss with them; be ready to adapt if necessary).
3. Ask the community leaders to ensure that many people will turn up.
4. If necessary, send staff around to invite people to come to the meeting and explain them
shortly what it is about.
A mass meeting can be planned, prepared and executed within a few hours if necessary!
During the meeting:
1. Have staff to explain arriving people where they can sit or stand.
2. Have staff to assist with translation if necessary (make sure to have the megaphone available
although it should preferably be used as little as possible as it creates ‘a distinction’ between
you and the people)
3. Discuss with the people as explained above. Explain the reason for the meeting first (you want
to pass on a message but, more important you want to learn from them what their problems
are). Speak with a friendly but loud enough voice (preferably not with the megaphone). Invite
the people to stand up and speak out loudly if they want to say something, not to wait but react
directly on the things said, not to be shy, and invite especially the women and elderly to speak
up.
4. Ask one or two of the staff to make notes about the things said (or, better, make notes yourself:
it further convinces people that you take them serious and that you will do something with the
things they say).
People usually start with telling you about all the material things they are lacking. Be prepared for
that and think on beforehand what you will answer to such questions/remarks.
After the meeting:
Follow up on the things discussed.
Chapter 3 : General tasks
p. 35
Example of use of technique:
In a camp in Rwanda there was suddenly a large influx in February 95 of new arrivals within 4
weeks (30.000 new arrivals on a total camp population of 50.000) due to unrest in certain parts of
the country. Mass meetings with 3000 people (heads of families) per meeting were held to
convince people that they had to dig latrines as the situation was rapidly deteriorating (new
arrivals were using latrines of people who already had built one which caused frictions, open
defecation was increasing, etc.). Some staff started to argue that the participatory approach of the
program should be abandoned and that the program should dig latrines for the people. Instead it
was chosen to hold mass meetings with both the new arrivals and the people who lived already
longer in the camp. The result was that many people who already had a latrine started to allow
new arrivals to make use of their latrine for the time being while new arrivals started to dig
latrines in large numbers. Within a few days (!) the problems were almost solved. In the same
meetings it was learned that one of the biggest problems of the people was the lack of plastic
sheeting for their huts. This information was passed on to other programs in the camp.
Unfortunately not much could be done, as the military forces did not allow distributions of plastic
sheeting. Things were further investigated though and for the worst cases some sheeting was
distributed secretly.
3.3.4.5 Workshop
Who can/should use the technique:
When to use the technique:
Explanation of the technique:
Importance of the technique; what it can be used for:
Example of use of technique:
Remarks:
Chapter 3 : General tasks
p. 36
3.4 Population census.





Counting inhabited huts and determining the average number of inhabitants per hut.
Obtaining figures from other programs.
Mapping.
Counting from the air.
Interpretation from aerial or satellite photographs.
3.4.1 Counting inhabited huts and determining the average number of inhabitants per hut.
Let staff who are good in counting (often hygiene promoters, sometimes together with sanitation
workers) count the huts in all parts of the camp and let one senior staff person cross-check the
countings in a few places. They should not count abandoned huts! Multiplication of the numbers
counted with the average number of household members per hut (see below) gives a very good
approximation of the total population in the camp usually. Asking households with how many
they are can be done by asking ad randomly to household members at their huts (ask at least at
0.5% of all huts and never less than 50 households), or, though less accurate, by asking people at
for instance a market in the camp with how many they live in their huts (ask to 0.1% of the
estimated population with a minimum of 50 people). Be careful: often numbers of household
members change very fast, e.g. when the mobility of people is very high (people often work in
other areas where they stay some time, or whole families migrate up and down between different
camps, for instance to get food rations from more than one camp). Timing: at least once a month
and even once every two weeks or more when the camp population changes fast. Execution: by
programme staff who are accurate and good in counting. Reporting: include figures obtained
in all reports.
3.4.2 Obtaining figures from other programs.
But be careful: the figures may be inaccurate. An example: food programs often work through
local chiefs who are asked for the numbers of their people in the camp. The chiefs often try to
push up the figures as much as possible in order to get more food supplied to their people. Try to
get an idea about accuracy by asking how the information is obtained and, especially if you don’t
have other population figures, try to get population figures determined with different methods.
Also curative health programs often do population censuses (usually reasonable quality). Best is
to do your own census as described in par. 3.4.1 and compare the figures obtained with the figures
from other programs (include all figures in the reports and explain textually, especially if
differences are large).
3.4.3 Mapping.
Make a rough map of the camp and divide it in 100m x 100m grids. Define for each grid whether
it is low, medium or highly populated, and count for each category the numbers of people in a few
of the grids. With these figures an average number of people per category can be determined.
After this a rough estimation of the camp population can be made. Especially suitable in
emergency phase (for instance when many people have not yet built a good hut).
3.4.4 Counting from the air.
Especially in situations were large numbers of people enter in an area without any services
established nor huts built etc. one should try to organize a small plain or helicopter to observe
things from the air (initial counting of numbers of people is one of the things, others are
observation of possible water sources, identification of proper camp sites, soil conditions etc.). If
influxes continue to be large counting from the air may have to be continued on a regular basis for
some time.
3.4.5 Interpretation of aerial or satellite photographs.
///still to be worked on///
Chapter 3 : General tasks
p. 37
3.5Tasks of general support staff.
General support staff are all staff in a program with a supportive function, executing tasks which
are meant to better enable others to do their tasks. Support staff often fulfill supportive tasks for
more than one program although this is not always so.
The general support staff described here are:
 field administrator
 office administrator
 office logistician
 program manager
The below organogramme highlights the positions of general support staff in water and sanitation
programs in camps:
Program Manager
Office administrator
Office logisticien
Field administrator
programs under the program manager's
reponsibility
Figure 3.1
Organogram of general support staff described in this paragraph
Other general support staff not described here are:
 drivers and other staff working at the office level
 team coordinator
 support staff at the country and head office levels
Chapter 3 : General tasks
p. 38
3.5.1 Field Administrator
Tools/materials needed:
3 pens, 3 notebooks, administration item cards, ruler, scissors, hole puncher, stapler, staples, ...
Number of Field Administrators needed: one head field administrator, possibly assisted by one or
two storekeepers, in case many water and sanitation programs are included, working in the main
store and going out to control things at the other sites and smaller stores.
Tasks (both for emergencies and non-emergencies):
Task
Description
Timing
Specifications
important for
execution of
the task
Manage
the field
store

When materials, tools or equipment arrive count them carefully, control their quality and
only when everything is OK accept them and sign for acceptance. After that store them
correctly and register them on their respective store cards
 When people come to take things make sure that each item they take is registered at the
right store card, including: 1) the amounts/numbers of the items they take, 2) the name of
the person, 3) the purpose of use, 4) signature of the person taking the items, and 5) if the
items are borrowed, the agreed date on which they will be returned to the store. Also
control whether new items should be ordered (if the balance is going toward the minimum
required amount indicated on the store card new items should be ordered; to ensure
ordering supplies in time take for each item into account the delivery time and the rate at
which the item is leaving the store)
 When people bring back borrowed items make sure they sign on the store card for it and
add the number of the items that were brought back to the balance
 If doubting about authorized use of tools, materials or equipment by any person obtaining
things from the store try to find out to what extent unauthorized and undetected use may
be the case. Crosscheck with your and other administrations to find proof for any
unauthorized use. This can be done for instance by asking people who were supposed to
receive materials whether they have really received them, looking at other uses of material
which are connected to the things under research in one way or another (see example of
soap distributions), etc. See also the examples given.
 Check whether uses of materials, tools, equipment which are expensive or in short supply
can not be replaced by alternative items which are in better supply or less expensive.
Discuss regularly about this with other involved staff, supervisors and manager.
 Make sure that chemicals, fuel and lubricants, food items and other items are stored
separately according to the prescriptions
 Count all materials, tools and equipment in the store and compare with the store cards
whether numbers/amounts are correct. If not, report immediately to the manager and find
out the reason.
 Control for all tools, materials and equipment whether their numbers/amounts available
are still sufficient for operation and contingency purposes (required numbers should be
written on the cards). If things are in short supply they should be ordered immediately
again.
 Check for each store card whether there are borrowed items, which have not been returned
to the store in time. Make a list of these cases and follow these up during the days afterwards (let someone go and find the involved persons and let those explain things). Report
to the manager in case people do not have the borrowed items any more.
 Count all the materials, tools and equipment in other stores (e.g. the plumbers’ store) and
control with the administration of the field store.
In case certain items needed are difficult to find look at local markets for alternative items that
can also fulfil the function for which the item is needed.
continuou
sly
see example of
store card
Once a month control all lists with materials, tools and equipment and the lists of spare parts
use of the different sites (pumping stations, tank stations, treatment site etc.) and compare
with the administration of the field store
Each month crosscheck a few of the lists by actually visiting the involved sites and count
yourself the numbers of tools, materials and equipment.
once a
month
Check all
materials,
tools and
equipment
in the store
Look for
alternatives
for rare or
expensive
items
Control
lists of all
sites and
cross-check
a few
Chapter 3 : General tasks
p. 39
once a
month
Wheneve
r needed
Form 3.1
Example of store card for field stores
Card number:______________
Store card
Name of item:
Date
Amount
issued
Code of item:
Amount
received
Balance
If borrowed
agreed date of
Reason for borrowing
return
Minimum quantity that should be in store:
If received, reason for
receiving
Chapter 3 : General tasks
p. 40
Details of receiver, borrower or supplier
Name
Signature for
agreement
Signature for
agreement by
administrator
3.5.2 Office administrator
//For materials, tools and equipment largely the same as for field administrator, although this
may be done by a separate storekeeper falling under the responsibility of the office administrator
(or of the office logistician). The office administrator is also responsible for financial
administration ... still to be worked out///
3.5.3 Office logistician
3.5.4 Program manager
The program manager is responsible for one or a number of water and sanitation programs in one
or a number of camps. In this paragraph the general tasks of a program manager are described
while in the chapters on the programs additional tasks of the program manager specific for those
programs are described.
Tools/materials needed:
pen, notebook, report forms, rubber boots, small rucksack,... + access to computer (e.g. notebook),
printer, copy machine, communication means (e.g. telephone, e-mail, radio, satellite connections),
handbooks (see recommended literature in each of the chapters), and other means to run the
programs effectively (e.g. cars, repair facilities, etc.)
Number of field managers needed:
Emergencies: ///clear guidelines needed/////
Non-emergencies: //??one per large program in one or two large camps (up to 150.000 inhabitants
altogether)?? more guidelines needed!///
Chapter 3 : General tasks
p. 41
Tasks (both for emergencies and non-emergencies):
Task
Description
Timing
Coordinate
direct action
Whenever action is needed, be on site to instruct people and discuss with them about
the most appropriate actions. In case of doubt contact the other managers or the
coordinator to get feed-back
In the main and other stores count the numbers of several of the items and check with
the store cards. Cross-check several of the items which are ‘connected’ with each other
(e.g. if for each latrine slab distributed also a bar of soap is distributed, after finishing
the latrine, the numbers of these items distributed should be more or less equal).
Informal walk through the camp during which spot check observations are done and
short informal discussions held with people about water and sanitation related topics.
The walk is usually planned to pass certain areas or structures of interest and often
focuses on certain subjects. The information is noted down, as much as possible in
quantifiable terms, e.g. the no. of the huts observed to be unclean against the total no.
of huts visited. Other staff usually accompanies the manager. Follow-up on the results.
Follow-up on problems reported to you or detected by yourself, even if you think they
are not very important (enables you to check the magnitude of a problem and to show
the involved staff that you take them serious). In case no time available to check
yourself ask other staff to further investigate. Also take personal problems serious;
even stimulate people to come to you with their personal problems. It creates trust and
respect. In case of suspected or proven theft it may be necessary to dismiss the
involved person(s) (try to proof; be careful with national regulations with regard to
dismissing persons)
Meet regularly to discuss certain problems or to discuss the work in general. These
meetings can be called for by the manager or by any of the supervisors. One can also
decide to hold such a meeting at fixed intervals (e.g. once a week). Discuss problems,
ideas etc. Make sure to follow-up on the outcome.
every day
Control field
administrati
on
Camp walk
Follow-up
on problems
Meet with
supervisors
Meetings
with staff
These can be informal meetings during field visits, formal, well prepared meetings,
workshops or training sessions. You or any of the staff can initiate them.
Meetings
with others
Meetings with beneficiaries, leaders and key informants, etc. These can be
informal meetings during field visits, formal, well prepared meetings, mass meetings
(with beneficiaries), and workshops.
Go into the field with different teams or individuals of staff and observe how they execute their tasks and at the same time discuss with them about the work, what they think
of it, their problems, ideas, etc. Try to give every group attention at regular intervals
but concentrate on the staff who have problems with their tasks (get info about this
through discussions with everybody, info from the supervisors and your own
observations). Often such visits are done together with the supervisors of the staff.
Control some of the logbooks and weekly reportings of that staff and crosscheck with
the reporting done by the supervisor. Also crosscheck by doing observations yourself
(e.g. counting the fuel drums at a pump station etc.; see also the specific tasks
described in the chapters on the programs). In case of doubt about correctness take
logbooks and/or reports with you for further study. Make sure to follow-up on the
outcome. During the visits also talk to camp inhabitants, caretakers, leaders etc. who
you meet during these visits (mainly to discuss subjects related to the staff visited at
that moment).
Attend meetings with other organizations and also meetings with the other managers of
your own organization. Be open and provide all information you have available. If such
meetings are not regularly held try to initiate them. Obtain all information needed
(especially health statistics, and other information relevant for the programs under your
responsibility) and coordinate actions to be taken
Visit staff
during their
work
Meetings
with other
managers
Obtain and
analyze
health
statistics
Reporting
If not obtained through the above-described meetings, make sure to obtain them in any
other way (ask the responsible managers for them). Find out which parts of the camp
they cover. Analyze the statistics as much as possible together with the managers of the
curative health programs and develop appropriate action according to the outcome. Include results and explanations/interpretations in weekly and monthly reports.
 weekly report
 monthly report
Chapter 3 : General tasks
p. 42
Specifications
important for
execution of
the task
once a
month
see task
description of field
administrator
once a week
to once a
month
For spot check
observations see
par. 3.3.2
For an example of
a camp walk see
Appendix ...
continuously
preferably
once a week
+ when
believed
necessary
when believed
necessary,
or when
proposed
whenever
believed
necessary
as often as
possible
Meet at least
daily with
managers of
your org.
and weekly
with managers of other
org.
every week


every
week
every
informal or focus
group discussions
(see par. ..)
see par. ...
see par. ...
Look at the task
descriptions of the
staff visited
For health
statistics see
par.....
See Forms ... and
... + the Forms in
the chapters about
the programs
month
Chapter 3 : General tasks
p. 43
Form 3....
Example of weekly report by the Program Manager
Country:________________
Camp:__________________
Date:_______________
Name program manager:___________________________________
General part
Programs under the manager’s responsibility
Total numbers of staff and beneficiaries (per
program)




Are new arrivals expected soon? If so, describe




Staff
Beneficiaries








Security problems encountered or expected to
become a problem soon? Describe
Remarks, ideas, activities undertaken, problems
encountered, which are not covered by any other
part of this report? Describe
Any large changes with regard to the other
organizations active in the camp and the
programs they execute? Describe
Population
100
90
80
70
60
Population
50
(in
thousands) 40
30
20
10
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Weeks
Last day of week 1 =____________ (fill in date) x-----x----x = total population O---O---O = population of camp part ....., etc.
What to do:
1. Copy population graph from last week and fill in the population figures for this week
2. Fill in the graph for total population and, if possible, for the populations of the different camp parts, especially if
there are large differences in the health statistics and/or other developments between those parts. Give textual
explanations on a separate page or on the back of this form.
Fill in the below table, also for the subjects for which no program activities exist (yet) (use back
of form if necessary)
Activities realized last week
Problem(s) detected / suspected?
(Y/N). If yes, give short
Chapter 3 : General tasks
p. 44
Actions planned/proposed
Subject
description of problem(s)
water
toilet
facilities
drainage
erosion
solid waste
vectors
corpses
shelter
livestock
hygiene
behavior
Other
subjects
(describe)
Chapter 3 : General tasks
p. 45
Health statistics
What to do:
1. Copy health statistic graphs from last week.
2. Register on the copies the incidences for total mortality and the most important watsan related diseases for this week (for
the whole camp, and, if needed, for different camp parts). Give interpretations on the back of this form.
Last day week 1 = ____________ (fill in date) x-----x----x = incidence ‘under fives’ O---O---O = incidence ‘crude’
Total mortality
200
180
160
140
120
Incidence
100
(cases/
80
10.000/
week)
60
40
20
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Weeks
Disease:
200
180
160
140
120
Incidence
100
(cases/
80
10.000/
week)
60
40
20
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Weeks
Disease:
200
180
160
140
120
Incidence
100
(cases/
80
10.000/
week)
60
40
20
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Weeks
Disease:
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
Chapter 3 : General tasks
p. 46
Incidence
(cases/
10.000/
week)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Weeks
Disease:
200
180
160
140
120
Incidence
100
(cases/
80
10.000/
week)
60
40
20
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Weeks
Disease:
200
180
160
140
120
Incidence
100
(cases/
80
10.000/
week)
60
40
20
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Weeks
Chapter 3 : General tasks
p. 47
Form 3....
Example of monthly report by the Program Manager
Country:________________
Camp:__________________
Date:_______________
Name program manager:___________________________________
////Still to be worked on. Include:
general part of weekly report
+
monthly report parts of programs included
+
map of the camp with facilities of the programs, boundaries, main roads, public health centers,
markets etc.
+

Executive summary.

Short description of the history of the program(s) reported on, including a broad outline of
the original strategies and planning, the changes made in the planning so far (and the
reasons for them), and the current main objectives and time frame of the program(s).

General description of the environmental health situation in the program area(s).

Discuss progress, results, and problems of and coordination with other
organizations/programs as far as they are relevant/important for the program(s) reported
on.

Describe other (potential) problems or issues important for the program(s) reported on (e.g.
security, (potential) problems with water and/or sanitation related subjects for which no
program activities exist, (potential) influx of new arrivals).

Describe important (unforeseen) activities carried out that are not standard for the program
(unofficial activities).
Chapter 3 : General tasks
p. 48
4.
Drinking water
4.1 Introduction
The recommended minimum objective of a water supply program is:
To ensure that, in accordance with the below specifications, water is available in sufficient
quantity and of sufficient quality to the targeted beneficiaries6.
Specifications for the recommended minimum objective of a water supply program
Water quantity
Situation
Emergency
Non-emergency
Subject
general
person
health center/hospital
out-patients
health center/hospital
in-patients
cholera center inpatients
Feeding center
therapeutic feeding
Feeding center
supplementary
feeding
Surgery/maternity
Kitchen in health
facility
Family latrines
Defecation field
Anal cleaning
Communal trench
latrines
6
Water quantity is more important than water quality
Water availability must be: (water needed for
people, including personal needs, health centers,
feeding centers etc. + water needed for livestock
+ if possible water needed for other water uses)
x 110%. Give account to increases in population
and livestock numbers in the near future
(coming weeks to months). Assure sufficient
clean water for people, esp. for drinking
For livestock, irrigation, laundry, personal
cleanliness, washing dishes, household cleaning,
water of less quality can be used
Be aware that people often have access to different
alternative water sources that may reduce the
quantity of water that needs to be produced by
the drinking water program.
3-5 l/person/day. 3 is the minimum for cold weather,
5 the minimum for hot weather
5 l/patient/day
Water quantity is more important than water quality
Water availability must be: (water needed for people,
including personal needs, health centers, feeding
centers etc. + water needed for livestock + water
needed for other water uses). Give account to
possible increases in population and livestock
numbers in the future (coming months to years).
Assure sufficient clean water for people, esp. for
drinking
For livestock, irrigation, laundry, personal cleanliness,
washing dishes, household cleaning, water of less
quality can be used
Be aware that people often have access to different
alternative water sources that may reduce the
quantity of water that needs to be produced by the
drinking water program.
10-20 l/person/day, depending on water availability,
water use culture, climate etc.
same
40-60 l/patient/day
same
60 l/patient/day
same
?
30 l/patient/day
?
15 l/patient/day
100 l/patient/day
10 l/patient/day
same
same
none
2-8 l/cubicle/day for cleaning latrine?
1-2 l/user/day for handwashing
1-2 l/user/day for handwashing
same
2-8 l/cubicle/day for cleaning?
2-8 l/m of trench/day for cleaning latrine?
1-2 l/user/day for handwashing
none
1-2 l/person/day
none
Activities regarding water use in households are not included in this chapter; they are described in chapter 7.
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 45
Specifications for the recommended minimum objective of a water supply program (continued)
Water quantity (continued)
Situation
Emergency
Non-emergency
Subject
pour-flush latrine (14 l/flush)
conventional flush
(10-20 l/flush)
Schools
don’t apply in emergencies, especially not when water is
scarce and/or difficult to obtain
don’t apply in emergencies, especially not when water is
scarce and/or difficult to obtain
none
Mosques
Other communal
units
Offices
Aid staff
cattle
donkeys, mules,
horses
Pigs
Chicken
sheep, goats
camels
irrigation
none
none
10-15 l/cubicle/day for cleaning the latrine
1-2 l/user/day for handwashing
5 l/person/day?
5 l/person/day?
none
30 l/person/day
20-40 l/head/day??
10-40 l/head/day??
5 l/person/day?
80 l/person/day
same
same
?
20 l/100 chicken/day?
1-5 l/head/day ??
40-90 l/head/day ??
In an emergency usually not a priority, especially if water
is scarce. Therefore only apply if drinking water
requirements are covered and sufficient water is available
for irrigation. If irrigation possible: 3-9 mm/day,
depending on climate, crop type and soil type.
same
same
same
same
3-9 mm/day (only allow irrigation if sufficient
water is available and if the supply is costeffective; irrigation water has other water quality
requirements than water used for domestic
purposes; bacteriological contamination may be
acceptable)
2-8 l/user/day
20-50 l/user/day
Water quality
Situation
emergency
non-emergency
The specifications given in this table are valid for drinking
water. Water used for other purposes such as laundry, personal
cleanliness and irrigation can have other, usually less stringent
requirements.
same
Subject
General
Fecal coliform
expressed in FC (=
thermotolerant coliform
= E.coli)
Conductivity
Odor
Color
pH
Turbidity
Residual free chlorine
Disinfect all waters if possible, especially if possibly
contaminated or no proof available of water quality.
Chlorinated water: no need to measure fecal coliforms if a
sufficient residual free chlorine level is available
Not chlorinated (or otherwise disinfected water) or chlorinated
water with a too low residual free chlorine level: < 1000 FC/100
ml both in households and at water collection points (for
drinking water for people). No restrictions for water used by
livestock, water for laundry, personal cleanliness, washing
dishes, and household cleaning
< 3000 uS/cm
no restrictions
no restrictions
6<pH<9.5 (if disinfection is needed pH should preferably be
lower than 8.5)
< 20 NTU
If turbidity > 20 NTU pre-treatment is required, i.e. eliminating
suspended matter before chlorination
Beginning of chain (just after chlorination): high enough
(measure after contact time of 30 min.) to assure a residual free
chlorine level at the water points of 0,3-5,0 mg/l
At the water collection points: 0,3-5,0 mg/l (the high level only
for short periods, if supplying for more than a few days aim for
a maximum of 1,0 mg/l)
Chlorinated water: no need to measure fecal coliforms if a
sufficient residual free chlorine level is available
Not chlorinated (or otherwise disinfected water) or
chlorinated water with a too low residual free chlorine
level: < 10 FC/100 ml (for drinking water for people). No
restrictions for water used by livestock, and much less
restrictions for water for washing/bathing etc.
< 2000 uS/cm
must be acceptable to the users
must be acceptable to the users
6<pH<8 if coagulation with aluminum sulfate is needed.
< 8 if disinfection is needed
< 10 NTU (acceptable for the first couple of months but the
aim should be to get a turbidity of at least <5 NTU)
< 1 NTU if disinfection is done/needed
Beginning of chain (just after chlorination): high enough
(measure after contact time of 30 min.) to assure a residual
free chlorine level at the water points of 0,3-1,0 mg/l (if a
high residual is needed to accomplish this check for
contamination entering in the system’s chain after
chlorination).
At the water collection points: 0,3-1,0 mg/l.
In the households: 0,2-1,0 mg/l just after collection from water
point (be aware that the resiudal may disappear quickly due to
the nature of the water and that it may therefore be difficult to
draw any conclusions from residual measurements done in this
stage)
Other parameters
Only monitor other parameters which have been found to be a
(potential) problem and use the maximum values as indicated in
House and Reed 1997, p. 172-173
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 46
In the households: 0,2-1,0 mg/l just after collection from
water point (be aware that the resiudal may disappear
quickly due to the nature of the water and that it may
therefore be difficult to draw any conclusions from residual
measurements done in this stage)
same
Specifications for the recommended minimum objective of a water supply program (continued)
Water accessibility
Situation
emergency
non-emergency
maximum distance: 1 km
maximum time to walk from shelter to nearest water collection point: 30
minutes
minimum distance water points to shelters: 30 m
750
maximum distance: 700 m
maximum time to walk from shelter to nearest
water collection point: 20 minutes
minimum distance water points to shelters: 30 m
500
Tapstand with 8 taps with enough flow: 1500
Tapstand with 6 taps with enough flow: 1200
Tapstand with 4 taps with enough flow: 900
Handpump: 500 - 1000 (depending on its yield)
Well: ?
Capped spring: ... persons if flow is ... - ..., ... persons if flow is higher
Tapstand with 8 taps with enough flow: 1300
Tapstand with 6 taps with enough flow: 1000
Tapstand with 4 taps with enough flow: 800
Handpump: 350
Well: ?
Capped spring: ... persons if flow is ... - ..., ...
persons if flow is higher
Subject
walking distance
/time to/from water
point
Maximum number of
people per handpump
Maximum number of
people per water
collection point
Maximum number of
users per tap
number of taps per
tapstand
Maximum waiting
time at water
collection point
Minimum and
maximum flow from
tap
(e.g. tapstand with 8 taps, 5 l/min./tap, yields 2.400 l/hour, use of tapstand
during 12 hours a day will give a total of 28.800 l which is with 1500 people
19,2 l/person, which is much more than the minimum required amount of 5
l/person per day and this is necessary because of course it will be difficult to
occupy all taps simultaneously full time)
250
same
1 to 8
same
2 hours
20 minutes
minimum: 5 l/minute
maximum: 25 (normal tap), 15 (Talflo water saving tap)
same
Water collection and storage
Situation
emergency
non-emergency
1 water collection vessel of 10-20 l per family.
The vessel has a narrow neck and/or a cover.
2 water collection vessels of 10-20 l each per family. The vessels
have narrow necks and/or covers.
Population size x 5 l (= 1 day drinking water for
each person)
37% of the daily volume of water needed. This is based on the
need to cover the peak demands: based on 40% abstraction of
daily water demand between 5 and 9 in the morning, 10%
between 9 and 14 hours, 40% between 14 and 18 hours and
10% between 18 and 20 hours //this is a usual rule in
development programs, but possibly 37% is a bit much for a
camp situation//
Subject
household water collection
vessel capacity
storage capacity of water tanks
in piped water supply system
The choice for a certain drinking water system depends on factors such as availability of water
sources and the quantities and quality of the water that can be obtained from them, the time
needed to develop the water sources, the availability of funds and other resources, etc. (see also
chapter 2). In this chapter 5 types of drinking water systems often found in camps are described:
Piped water supply system
River or lake water pumped; treatment which may include sedimentation, roughing filtration, coagulation +
flocculation, slow sand filtration and/or chlorination; pipeline supply which includes storage tanks and
intermediate pump stations; tapstands
Deep boreholes
with submersible pumps, no water treatment, further as piped supply system
Hand pumps
Protected springs
Water tankering
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 47
4.2Piped water supply program
This paragraph gives an example of the tasks that should be executed by the involved actors in a
piped supply system as schematized below.
////put here figure from p. 290 Eng. in emergencies ///
Figure 4.1
Elements of the piped water supply system described in this paragraph
From Davis and Lambert, 1995
Other programs
Field administrator
of the water program
Manager of water and sanitation program
Overall supervisor piped water program
Supervisor water treatment
Supervisor water pumping and storage
water treatment staff
guards of treatment site
pump and tank operators
source caretakers
mechanics
guards of pump and storage sites
Figure 4.2
Office administrator
Office logisticien
Supervisor distribution
team leader plumbers
system controlers
plumbers
tapstand caretakers
Organogram of the piped water supply system described in this paragraph
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 48
The program can be divided in 3 work units:
The distribution unit
Comprises everything that has to do with the pipeline and the tapstands (described in paragraphs
4.2.1 to 4.2.5)
The pumping and storage unit
Comprises all works regarding pumping and storage of water (described in paragraphs 4.2.6 to
4.2.11)
The water treatment unit
Comprises all water treatment works (described in paragraphs 4.2.12 to 4.2.14)
Each of the units is manned by staff, who together are responsible to fulfil the tasks of their work
unit. Other staff are to support each of the work units, for instance overall supervisor, field
administrator, program manager, office administrator and office logistician. The tasks are divided
over the different staff for the first two units while for the third, the water treatment unit, a list of
tasks is described which should be divided among the staff working in this unit by these staff
themselves.
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 49
4.2.1 Tapstand caretakers
Tapstand caretakers can be unpaid refugees who have committed themselves to keep an eye on
one or more tapstand(s). They can be further motivated through training, meetings and regular
contact with the system controllers. It is recommended to let the community choose their own
tapstand caretaker (see paragraph ... for a methodology on how to let people choose their own
project staff) and discuss with the people how important the function is. The caretakers should be
provided with the tools they need for carrying out their tasks plus some kind of work outfit, and it
may be good to give them some incentives (e.g. soap). Their tasks are largely the same for
emergencies and non-emergencies (only some of the specifications to be applied are different).
Tools/materials needed per tapstand caretaker:
One shovel, one pick, one ho. The tools can also be borrowed by the people in the area for works
such as improvement of drainage around their huts and latrines, burial of people, etc. The tapstand
caretaker remains responsible for them though. People should also be allowed to borrow tools
from the program (see ...).
Number of tapstand caretakers needed:
One tapstand caretaker for each tapstand. Sometimes one tapstand caretaker can take care of more
than one tapstand (e.g. if tapstands are near to each other, or temporarily in emergencies).
Tasks during emergencies:
Task
Description
Timing
Organize
orderly and
proper water
collection at
the tapstands
If the situation at the tapstands tend to become chaotic start first to
organize people telling them to stand in rows and allow each family
to take more or less the same limited/rationed amount of water. If
this doesn’t help warn the system controller or supervisor.
Control
waiting times
Control whether waiting times are not too long. If they are too long
warn the system controller.
control
several times
a day; be at
the tapstand
whenever
needed
Measure
once a day
Control the
taps and
ensure their
proper use
Control whether:
* the flow from the taps is in order,
* taps are still functioning properly and are undamaged (especially
leaking taps causes a lot of unnecessary waste of water), and
* people use the taps correctly.
control twice
a day
Specifications
waiting time
should be less
than 2 hours
water should be
flowing easily
from the taps
whenever
opened.
Ask the system controller to get spare parts, new taps etc. from the
field store if needed.
Execute small repairs yourself or ensure that plumber or system
controller will pass by soon to do the repair.
Ensure proper use of the taps by people. Don’t allow them to fix
ropes or do other things to the taps (people may do such things to
keep taps open continuously which will lead to a lot of water
spillage).
Control
whether water
quality is
measured
Report serious
problems
Don’t allow the water to be tapped for any other purposes (e.g.
irrigation) than drinking water if water from the system is scarce.
Control whether the system controller comes by at least once a day
to carry out water quality measurements. If he doesn’t show up one
day to carry out this task find him and discuss it with him (keep in
mind that it may be that it is decided that they only need to pass by
once every few days, for instance if the water quality is not likely to
become bad easily).
Contact and report (orally) to the system controller, or the
Supervisor, as quick as possible in case of serious problems.
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 50
Control
every day
every day
residual chlorine
control should be
done once a day
Tasks during non-emergencies:
Task
Description
Timing
Organize
orderly and
proper water
collection at the
tapstands
If the situation at the tapstands tend to become chaotic start
first to organize people telling them to stand in rows and
allow each family to take more or less the same
limited/rationed amount of water. If this doesn’t help warn
the system controller or supervisor.
Control waiting
times
Control whether waiting times are not too long. If they are
too long warn the system controller.
control once to
twice a day; be
at the tapstand
continuously
whenever
needed
Measure once a
day
Control the taps
and ensure their
proper use
Control whether:
* the flow from the taps is in order,
* taps are still functioning properly and are undamaged
(especially leaking of taps can cause a lot of unnecessary
waste of water), and
* people use the taps correctly.
control once to
twice a day
Specifications
waiting time
should be less
than 20 minutes
water should be
flowing easily
from the taps.
Ask the system controller to get spare parts, new taps etc.
from the field store if needed and execute the repairs
yourself and/or together with the system controller or
plumber (ask them to pass by if you think this is necessary)
Ensure proper use of the taps by people. Don’t allow them
to fix ropes or do other things to the taps (they may do this
in order to keep them open continuously).
Don’t allow taps to be opened for irrigation purposes if
water is scarce.
Ensure a proper
platform
Check every day for cracks or other damage to the platform.
Contact the system controller or plumbers and ask them to
do the repairs if required. Also try to find out the causes for
the damage. If people damage the platform discuss this with
them and if necessary their leaders, parents etc. in order to
convince them to stop damaging the structures.
every day
Ensure a clean
tapstand
environment
Control
whether water
quality is
measured
Ensure proper
functioning and
use of showers,
laundry and
other washing
facilities
Control whether spilt water drains away properly and
surroundings are kept clean. If not, organize the community
to improve the situation.
Control whether the system controller comes by every week
to carry out water quality measurements. If he doesn’t show
up in time find him and discuss it with him.
every day
Report serious
problems
Contact and report (orally) to the system controller, or
directly to the Supervisor Distribution or Manager, as quick
as possible in case serious problems are encountered.
Control every
day
In case other water use facilities such as public showers,
laundry and other washing facilities are constructed at or
near the tapstand these should also be checked for proper
drainage, sufficient water flow and capacity. Repair and
improve where needed and possible and discuss with people
about proper use. If materials are needed contact the system
controller who will then take care of that (execute the repair
together with him if possible).
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 51
every day
residual chlorine
control should be
done once a
week
waiting times for
showers should
be less than ...
4.2.2 System controllers
A system controller is a paid staff member of the piped water supply program responsible for the
control of a part of the pipelines and tapstands. In emergencies the most important tasks are to
control the water flow, waiting times and free residual chlorine levels at the tapstands. In
situations regarded as ‘non-emergency’ the system controller keeps a logbook for each tapstand
under his responsibility.
Tools/materials needed per system controller:
One adjustable spanner, one role of white tape, copies of reporting forms, one pen, one small
notebook, one color comparator, 20 to 50 free residual chlorine testing tablets (DPD1).
Number of system controllers needed:
In emergencies one system controller is needed per ... tapstands or per ... km of pipeline. In nonemergencies this should be one system controller per ... tapstands or per ... km of pipeline.
Box 4.1 Testing the pH and free residual chlorine level
Both pH and free residual chlorine levels can be determined using a color comparator
(see Figure 4.1). The comparator contains two compartments, one for the pH and one for
the residual chlorine test. Depending on the parameter to be measured one of the
compartments is filled with the water to be tested. Add the reagents specific for the test
(for pH: Phenol Red; for free residual chlorine testing: DPD1) to this water. As a result
the water develops a color which can be compared with color scales on the comparator.
The corresponding values for the parameter measured can be read at the side of the color
indications on the comparator. Also the combined residual chlorine level can be
measured (with DPD3 tablets) but this is only done in certain specific circumstances and
usually not in camps.
Figure 4.1
Color comparator
From Davis and Lambert, 1995
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 52
Tasks during emergencies:
Task
Control
public
tapstands
Execute
free
residual
chlorine
tests
Description
Timing
Specifications
At each public tapstand:
Control each
tapstand once
a day and
whenever
asked for by
caretaker or
other people
* Water should
flow freely and
easily from the
taps when
opened.
Every day
* execute in 20%
of the tapstands (2 tests
per tapstand)
* Contact the tapstand caretaker (if already installed) and discuss
any problems encountered by him. Take appropriate actions for
problems encountered that are not yet solved.
*
Check the water flow from all taps. Clean or change the taps with
poor flows (change taps yourself or ask the plumbers to do this).
Tighten leaking taps and, if this doesn’t stop the leaking, replace
with new taps and bring the removed ones to the plumbers’
workshop. Check, if suspected, whether too low flows are caused
by under pressure in the system (assess by removing a tap while
keeping all other taps closed, and allowing water to flow out free
from the pipe; if this gives a low flow, then there is too little
pressure). Discuss with supervisor and plumbers about the
measures to be taken.
*
Observe whether people are using the taps correctly (not fixing
anything to keep taps opened, not spoiling too much water etc.).
Instruct the caretaker to keep an eye on this and instruct people
about proper use if necessary.
*
Look whether there are long rows of people waiting (or many
containers standing in a row in front of the tapstand). If so, ask
the tapstand caretaker about waiting times. If suspected that
waiting times are too long, measure the waiting times. If waiting
times are too long, find out what the causes are, contact the
supervisor and other important actors, e.g. the plumbers, and
determine together the appropriate actions to be taken.
*
Observe whether water is used only for drinking, especially if
water is scarce. Look for signs of irrigation (should be absolutely
forbidden) or other not allowed uses. Discuss with the tapstand
caretaker that he should contact people involved in those uses and
explain them that this can not be allowed (and that if they refuse
to listen he will contact supervisor, manager, village leaders,
etc.). Also visit the involved people together and discuss with
them.
*
Report all serious problems to the supervisor and if believed
necessary, also to the manager and ensure that if problems are not
yet solved, appropriate action is taken by (together with) them.
Further: go to tapstands whenever asked for by caretakers or other
people who have observed or suspect problems with those tapstands.
Try to solve the problems, otherwise ensure remedial action by staff
who can solve the problems.
The test is described in Box 4.1. If the levels found are too high or
too low contact the Supervisor Distribution as well as the Supervisor
Water Treatment to discuss what measures should be taken.
Check for
large leaks
in the
pipeline
Ask tapstand caretakers and people living near the pipeline to inform
you whenever they observe or suspect large leaks. Control yourself
by walking along the pipeline and looking for wet places. If detected
contact the plumbers to repair the leak.
Control
tapstands
in public
centers
For connections in health centers, feeding centers etc: keep contact
with staff of those facilities and fulfil basically the same functions as
for the public tapstands, though giving the tapstands in these centers
a higher priority than the public tapstands.
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 53
once every 27 days,
depending on
vulnerability
of system.
every day
* Waiting times
should be less
than 2 hours
* residual chlorine level
should be
between 0,3
and 0,6 mg/l.
every large leak
should be
repaired as soon
as possible.
see the
specifications
described for
public tapstands
Tasks during non-emergencies:
Task
Control
public
tapstands
Description
At each public tapstand:
*
Contact the tapstand caretaker and discuss any problems
encountered by him. Take appropriate actions for problems
encountered that are not yet solved.
*
Check the water flow from all taps (open the taps and check the
flow; determine in more detail for one tap: fully open the tap, let
the water flow into a reservoir of known volume and measure the
time to fill it, then calculate the flow). Change the taps with poor
flow (do this yourself or ask the plumbers to do this). Tighten
leaking taps. If this doesn’t stop the leaking, replace with new
taps. Bring removed taps to the plumbers’ workshop. Check, if
suspected, whether too low flows are caused by under pressure in
the system: assess by removing a tap while keeping all other taps
closed, and allowing water to flow out free from the pipe; if this
gives a low flow, then there is too little pressure. Discuss with
supervisor and plumbers about the measures to be taken.
*
Check for cracks in platform, proper wastewater drainage,
cleanliness of tapstand and immediate surroundings etc. Execute
remedial action and contact other staff to execute repairs if
needed.
*
Observe whether people are using the taps correctly (the users
should not: fix anything to keep taps opened, spoil too much
water, leave taps open after use, etc.). Instruct the caretaker to
keep an eye on these things and instruct people yourself shortly
about proper use if necessary.
*
Measure the time people are waiting to get water. Look at your
watch when someone just arrives and look at your watch again at
the moment this person actually starts to take water. Note down
the time in the logbook. If the measured time is too long, find out
what the causes are (discuss also with caretaker), and contact the
supervisor and other important actors, e.g. the plumbers, and
determine together the appropriate actions to be taken.
*
Observe whether water is used for other purposes than drinking.
In most camps irrigation should best be forbidden, especially if
water is scarce. Discuss with the caretaker that he should contact
people involved in water uses that are not allowed and explain to
them that they should stop with those uses (and that if they refuse
he will contact supervisor, manager, community leaders, etc.).
Also visit involved people together and discuss with them.
*
Check other water facilities. If there are other water use facilities
(public showers, laundry facilities etc.) at or near the tapstand
these should also be checked for sufficient capacity, cleanliness
etc. as well. Take appropriate action in case of problems.
*
Control whether the materials and tools of the caretaker are still
with him. If not ask what the problem is. Replace items if the
explanation is satisfactory (e.g. if a tool is broken the caretaker
should be given a new one). Discuss with supervisor in case theft
is suspected and take appropriate measures if necessary (only
after finding proof!).
*
Try to get an idea about the causes of the problems encountered
and contact supervisor, community leaders, other staff, manager
or the beneficiaries themselves in order to develop and take
measures to prevent these problems to emerge again, especially if
you feel the causes of the problems may be difficult to take away
(especially if vandalism is observed or suspected).
*
Report all serious problems to the supervisor and if believed
necessary, also to the manager and ensure that if problems are
not yet solved, appropriate action is taken by (together with)
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 54
Timing
control each
tapstand once
a week and
whenever
asked for by
caretaker or
other people
Specifications
* flow from a tap
should be 5 25 l/min.; for a
Talflo water
saving tap: 5 15 l/min.
* waiting times
for tapstands
should be less
than 20
minutes
* waiting times
for public
showers and
other washing
facilities
should be ...
them to solve the problems.
*
Fill in the tapstand logbook (Form 4.1). There should be a
tapstand logbook for each tapstand.
Further: go to tapstands whenever asked for by caretakers or other
people who have observed or suspect problems with those tapstands.
Try to solve the problems, otherwise ensure remedial action by staff
who can solve the problems.
Execute
free
residual
chlorine
tests
The test is described in Box 4.1. If the levels found are too high or
too low contact the Supervisor Distribution as well as the Supervisor
Water Treatment to discuss what measures should be taken.
once a week
* Execute in
20% of
tapstands (2
tests per
tapstand)
* Residual chlorine level
should be
between 0,3
and 0,6 mg/l.
Check for
leaks in
pipeline
Ask tapstand caretakers and people living near the pipeline to inform
you whenever they observe or suspect leaks. Control yourself by
walking along the pipeline and looking for wet places. If detected
contact the plumbers to repair the leak.
once a week
every leak should
be repaired as
soon as possible.
Control
tapstands
in public
centers
Report
Tapstands in health centers, feeding centers etc. Keep contact with
staff of those facilities and fulfil basically the same functions as for
the public tapstands, though usually giving the connections in these
centers a higher priority.
Make a report at the end of each week and provide to the supervisor.
once a week
see the specifications for
public tapstands
every week
see Form 4.2
/// put figure here of tapstand with arrows indicating the spots to be checked///
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 55
Form 4.1
Example of tapstand logbook to be filled in during each control of that tapstand by the system controller.
Camp:________________
Date
Outflow
measured (describe
in last column what the
problem is if the outflow
is insufficient
Name of tapstand:______________ Camp part:______________ Name of system controller:_____________
Waiting time
(describe in last column
what the problem is if
waiting time is too long)
Residual chlorine levels
(in mg/l)
(if values are too low or too
high explain in last column)
sample 1
Are all
materials and
tools still with
the caretaker?
sample 2
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 56
Materials/spare
parts used (by
caretaker, system
controller and
plumbers)
Problems and recommendations
Describe the problems found, recommendations,
remarks etc. (also ask caretaker and people) and
whether the problems have been solved
Form 4.2
Example of report form to be filled in each week by system
controllers.
Country:__________________ Date:______________ Camp:___________________
Name of system controller:____________________
System part under controller’s responsibility: _______________
Number of tapstands under system controller’s responsibility:__________
Total length of pipeline under system controller’s responsibility:________________
Number of tapstands checked
Number of tapstands where the outflow at one or more of
the taps was not enough
Were all problems with outflow from taps solved? If not,
explain on the back of this form
Number of tapstands where free residual chlorine tests
were executed
Number of tapstands where too high or too low free
residual chlorine levels were found
Were the problems with too low or too high free residual
chlorine levels solved? If not, explain on the back of this
form and give recommendations for solving the
problems.
Number of tapstands with other problems than problems
with outflow or free residual chlorine.
Were the problems solved? If not describe on the back of
this form and give recommendations for solving the
problems.
Do you or the caretakers of the tapstands have important
remarks, questions or recommendations? If so, describe
per tapstand on the back of this form (in case of remarks,
questions or recommendations by caretakers also give
your own opinion).
Did all caretakers still have all materials and tools that
were given to them for their tasks? If not describe,
mention the caretakers where problems were found and
give your opinion and recommendations.
Materials used for the tapstands by caretakers, system
controller and plumbers
Number of leaks or other water loss problems found in
the pipeline
Were the problems with the leaks or other water losses in
the pipeline solved? If not, explain on the back of this
form and give recommendations for solving the
problems.
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 57
4.2.3 Plumbers
Tools/materials needed:
Each plumber should have: working gloves, rubber boots, an overall, ..
Plumbers usually have a small working place that contains a number of tools and equipment plus
some spare materials while the larger stocks of spare materials are in the field store and/or in the
project or regional store usually at some distance from the camp. The team leader of the plumbers
is responsible for the working place (unless there are more than one plumbing team in which case
there should be a separate administrator for the working place). A plumbers’ working place for a
piped system as described in this paragraph which mainly consists of PVC pipes, but with several
parts in GI (e.g. for gullies, stream and road crossings, tapstands, parts with high pressure, parts
where pipes can not be buried etc.) typically contains the tools, materials and equipment described
in Box 4.....
Number of plumbers needed:
Usually ////??... plumbers are needed per ... km of pipeline???////. The plumbers operate in a team.
We recommended having teams of max.. plumbers. If there are more than one team, all teams can
make use of the same working place, although it may be necessary then to have one additional
person to be fully and only responsible for the management of the working place.
Tasks (both for emergencies and non-emergencies):
Task
Description
Timing
Specifications
important for
execution of the
task
Work on
extension
of system
Work in team to further build up the pipeline system. Often casual
labor is hired for this who should be supervised by the plumbers. The
works will include laying of pipes and connecting them, erecting of
water tanks, construction of tapstands.
whenever
needed
Execute
repairs
Execute repairs to the pipeline (e.g. fixing leaks), tapstands (leaks,
fixing new taps, repairing platform), tanks and other structures which
are part of the pipeline system. When stressed in time due to much
work it will be necessary to make a careful planning and prioritize
the actions (largest problems first).
when asked
for by system
controller,
tapstand
caretaker,
supervisors
or manager
technical
specifications; see
technical
guidelines, e.g.
Davis and Lambert
1995.
technical
specifications; see
technical
guidelines, e.g.
Davis and Lambert
1995.
Box 4.2 Fixing and entrenching pipes
Include Box about fixing and entrenching different kinds of pipes
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 58
Box 4.3 Tools, materials and equipment needed in a plumbers’ working place
//////////needed: a complete list of all tools, materials and equipment needed in a plumbers’ workshop.
Toolkit for erecting and dismantling OXFAM tanks:
(MSF module KWATMTOOOT-). Needed: 1 set per ... tanks.
Description
Quantity
3/8” square drive cranked handle speed brace
1
17 mm 3/8” square drive 12 point spanner socket
2
17 mm combination ring / open-end spanner
2
24 mm combination ring / open-end spanner
2
200 mm Blade flared tip screwdriver
2
8” half round bastard file and handle
1
16 cm knife cut 2 needle file
1
8” adjustable spanner
1
12” adjustable hacksaw frame
1
12” 24 TPI HSS hacksaw blades
3
Retractable trimming knife c/w 5 blades
1
200 mm capacity strap wrench-gedore 36-2-00
2
12” aluminum spirit level
1
Line level
1
Pair of line pins with 18 m of line
1
Pair of 0.5 mm scissors
1
17 mm open-ended podger / spanner, 279 mm long
2
Toolkit for work on pipeline and taps:
(MSF module KWATMTOOWAT). Needed: 1 toolkit per ... km of pipeline
Description
Bucket of 20 l with lid
Band clip 12 mm, 2”
High pressure band clip diameter 80 to 85, simple tightening
(Symm. half coupling 2” ND50) Gasket
(Symm. half coupling 3” ND80) Gasket
(coupling) Hook spanner for Guillemin 2”3”4” DN20 to DN115
Thread seal tape, Teflon role
Monkey wrench 80 mm max. opening
Club hammer 1250 g
Pipe wrenches chain, max. opening 4”/115 mm
Constant-profile flat chisel 200 x 24 mm
Long-leverage end nippers
OGV angled open-socket wrench 6x6 point 13 mm
OGV angled open-socket wrench 6x6 point 7 mm
Electrician knife
Round-shank screwdriver 5.5 x 200 mm
Shackle, diameter 8mm, straight
Wire, tie, galvanized, small diameter 1.1, 25 m, roll
Paint, red, fluorescent, spr/tin
Gun, for silicone compound
(gun, silicone) Silicone compound, cartridge 310 ml
Tube, extension, for pincer tool
Oil, penetrating, 500 ml, spr/tin
Quantity
1
5
10
5
5
5
10
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
3
1
3
1
1
1
2
1
1
Other:
spanner, strip spanners, PVC glue, PVC pipe rubber rings (if re-openable fittings), shovels, picks, large adjustable
spanners, tool for threading GI pipes, Work table with clamps to hold GI and PVC pipes, ... PVC pipes of the classes
and diameters used in the system per ... of m of that pipe class/diameter used, ... GI pipes of the classes and diameters
used in the system per ... of m of that pipe class/diameter used, ... sockets, etc.//////////
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 59
4.2.4 Team leader of the plumbers
Tools/materials needed per team leader:
Additional to the normal working outfit of the plumbers the team leader of the plumbers should
have ....
Number of team leaders of plumbers needed:
One per team of plumbers.
Tasks (emergencies and non-emergencies):
Task
Description
Work as a
plumber
Work together with the plumbers executing the same tasks
as they have, but in the same time coordinating the work
and taking time as well for the other below described
tasks.
Record the repairs made and the materials/spare parts used
in the logbook (see Form 4.3)
Make sure that specific problems encountered that are not
yet solved are reported to the supervisor and/or the
manager and are followed up.
Keep administration forms (see par. ..) of all spare parts
used. For tools and equipment the team leader should
know by head who has them and where they are and
control regularly whether they are still there. If things
have disappeared it is the team leader who will be held
responsible for the losses. Control the administration and
remaining spare parts, tools and equipment on a regular
basis together with the field administrator and assess
whether anything is missing and whether any new things
are needed in the field stock. This can be done by
counting all items and verify with the administration
forms and the plumbers’ logbook. Ensure together with
the field administrator that all items needed will be
delivered to the workshop on short notice.
Reporting in
logbook
Reporting
problems orally
Manage the
plumbers’
workshop
Timing
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 60
management is
a continuous
task; control of
the stock is
once a week for
emergencies to
once a month
for nonemergencies,
depending on
available time
and
circumstances
Specifications
Form 4.3
Example of logbook of the team leader of the plumbers
Country:_________________________
Camp:________________________
Name of plumbing team:____________________ Name of team leader:_______________
Date
Repair done
(indicate type of repair
and exact location)
Materials/spare parts
used
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 61
Specific problems encountered
(make sure that such problems are
followed up if they are not yet solved)
4.2.5 Supervisor Distribution
Tools/materials needed:
Number of Supervisors Distribution needed:
One
Tasks during emergencies:
Task
Description
Timing
Specifications
Coordinate
extension
works
Coordinate works needed to extend the pipeline system together
with the plumbing team(s), and if needed also with other
supervisors and the manager.
when
needed
technical
specifications; see
technical
guidelines, e.g.
Davis and Lambert
1995
Follow-up
on problems
Ensure that problems reported to you or observed by yourself are
followed up, i.e. coordinate solving the problems with your unit
(distribution) and if necessary contact others to assist. Report all
large problems immediately to the overall supervisor and manager.
whenever
needed
Hold short
informal
meetings
with staff
Discuss problems encountered, ideas, remarks etc. and make plans
together on how to solve problems, improve the work etc.
Coordinate the follow up on these meetings.
every day
Meetings can be held in the field (e.g. during the field visits; see
below) or at any suitable place.
Inform and discuss the results with the manager (he may also be at
or initiate these meetings) and ask his reaction on/permission for
any new plans or ideas developed.
The meetings can also be held to give short trainings to staff (often
together with the manager).
Field visits
Go into the field with each system controller and each team of
plumbers to observe and discuss their work. Control whether they
execute all the tasks they are supposed to execute and whether they
execute them correctly (look at their task descriptions and to the
explanations of subjects in the specific boxes).
keep
meetings
short and
to the
point to
avoid
losing
time.
every day
Check whether the staff visited still have their materials, tools and
equipment. Ask why if things are lacking. Organize to renew things
if needed. If things are stolen or if this is suspected investigate and
report immediately to the manager.
Also discuss with the people and the caretakers during such visits.
Meet with
other
supervisors
and the
manager
Meet with and discuss about problems, ideas and plans with the
manager, other supervisors of the piped water program and
supervisors of other programs as well (e.g. supervisors of the
hygiene education and toilet programs). Such meetings are often
called for by the manager but they can also be initiated by any of
the supervisors and do not necessarily always have to be held
together with the manager; the meetings can be formally organized
meetings, but also informal unplanned and unorganized meetings.
Make sure always to discuss the outcome of the meetings with the
manager and ask his opinion about it and permission for plans,
ideas etc.
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 62
regularly,
e.g. once
every 2 to
6 days
execute as informal group discussions (see ch. 3,
par. 3.3.1 and
3.3.4.1
Tasks during non-emergencies:
Task
Description
Timing
Specifications
Coordinate
extension
works
Coordinate works needed to extend or adapt the pipeline system
together with the plumbing team(s), and if needed also with other
supervisors and the manager.
when
needed
technical guidelines, e.g. Davis
and Lambert 95
Follow-up
on problems
Ensure that problems reported to you or observed by yourself are
followed up, i.e. coordinate solving the problems with your unit
staff and if necessary contact others to assist. Report all large
problems immediately to overall supervisor and manager.
whenever
needed
Discuss
weekly
reports of
plumbers
and system
controllers +
produce the
weekly
Distribution
Unit report
Discuss weekly reports
In a meeting with system controllers + team leaders of the
plumbing teams receive their weekly reports, discuss these and
other things brought forward (e.g. progress of the works, problems,
ideas, remarks). Every week take one of the weekly reports to study
in more detail: crosscheck it against the related logbooks, your own
observations made during the week and other information obtained
by you or any of the staff.
once a
week
(meeting
should
not be
longer
than half
a working
day)
For an example of
a weekly
Distribution Unit
report see Form
4....
whenever
believed
necessary
; try to
meet with
each
group of
staff at
least once
a month
for 1-2
hours.
execute as focus
group discussions,
open group
discussions or
workshops (see
chapter 3) or as a
training
every
day; keep
meetings
short + to
the point
to avoid
losing
time.
execute as
informal group discussions (see ch. 3,
par. 3.3.1 and
3.3.4.1
Produce the weekly report of the Distribution Unit
Use all information to produce the weekly report of the Distribution
Unit. You can do this together with some of the staff. Give the
report to the Manager and keep a copy of it yourself.
Keep all reports in file
Keep the copy of weekly report of the Distribution Unit and all
other weekly reports in file.
Hold formal
meetings
with and
give
trainings to
the staff of
the Unit.
Meet with the plumbers, team leaders of the plumbers, tapstand
caretakers and/or the system controllers (in separate groups, or in
any combination found useful). These meetings may be initiated by
the manager, but also by the supervisor or by the staff. Discuss any
problems they have with the work, things that can/should be
improved, ideas or practical and organizational issues.
Let staff bring the tools, materials and equipment they work with to
the meeting (with exception of the items belonging to the
plumbers’ working place) and control whether these are still
complete (you can also ask the field administrator to attend the
meeting and count and control). Follow up on the outcome of the
meetings.
Also use these meetings to train staff on specific subjects if
necessary or to develop/plan new activities with them, etc.
Hold short
informal
meetings
with staff
Discuss problems encountered, ideas, remarks etc. and make plans
together on how to solve problems, improve the work etc.
Coordinate follow-up on these meetings.
Meetings can be held in the field (e.g. during field visits; see
below) or at any suitable place.
Inform and discuss the results with the manager (he may also be at
or initiate these meetings) and ask his reaction on/permission for
any plans or ideas developed.
The meetings can also be used to give short trainings to staff (often
together with the manager).
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 63
Tasks during non-emergencies (continued):
Field visits
Go into the field with each system controller and each plumbing
team to observe and discuss their work. Control whether they
execute all their tasks and whether they execute them correctly
(look at task descriptions and the explanations of subjects in the
specific boxes).
Check whether the staff visited still have their materials, tools and
equipment. Ask for an explanation if things are lacking. Organize
to renew things if needed. If things are stolen or if this is suspected
investigate and report immediately to the manager.
at least
once a
month for
a couple
of hours
with each
plumbing
team and
each
controller
Also discuss with the people and the caretakers during such visits.
Control the
plumbers’
working
place and
the field
stock
Control with the field administrator and the team leader of the
plumbers or other responsible person the materials, equipment and
tools in the plumbers’ working place.
once a
month.
Use the store cars to make a list of materials used that month and
cross-check this with the logbooks of the tapstands and the
plumbers logbooks. (Later, during the field visits) visit a few sites
to control whether really the materials as indicated in the logbooks
were used there.
Control together with field administrator and other supervisors
whether sufficient spare parts, tools and equipment for the
Distribution Unit are in the field stock (see the required quantities
indicated at the top of the store cards). Ensure together with the
field administrator that any items needed are ordered immediately
in sufficient quantity.
Meet with
other
supervisors
and/or the
manager
Meet with and discuss about the findings and problems with the
other supervisors of the piped water program and supervisors of
other programs as well, for instance the hygiene education
program, toilet program, etc. (these can be formally organized
meetings, but also informal unplanned, unorganized meetings). The
meetings can be initiated by any of the supervisors or by the
manager.
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 64
whenever
believed
necessary
Stored materials
tools, equipment
should cover for
normal operational
needs +
contingency. See
also par. ... and ch.
3 par. ...
Form 4.4
Example of weekly report form Distribution Unit1
Country:______________________
Date:___________________________
Camp:_________________ Name of Supervisor Distribution:____________________
Total number of tapstands
Total length of pipeline
Total number of caretakers
Total number of system controllers
Total number of plumbers plus their team leader(s)
Did you receive all weekly reports from the system controllers and
the team leaders of the plumbers? If not explain.
Total number of tapstands with insufficient outflow at one or more
of the taps. Describe in which parts of the camp the problems occurred,
whether the problems have been solved, and if not, what the believed
causes and solutions are. Indicate what you plan to do about the
problems that are not yet solved.
With regard to free residual chlorine tests done at the tapstands describe:
* the total number of free residual chlorine tests executed,
* the maximum free residual chlorine level found (in mg/l),
* the minimum free residual chlorine level found (in mg/l),
* the average of the free residual chlorine levels of all tests (in mg/l),
* the number of tests that had too high values, and
* the number of tests which resulted in too low values.
Comment in case values found differ much from former weeks or if large
differences occurred during the week. Describe in which parts of the camp
the problems occurred, whether the problems have been solved, and if
not, what the believed causes and solutions are. Indicate what you plan to
do about the problems that are not yet solved.
Other problems with tapstands. Describe in which parts of the camp
the problems occurred, whether the problems have been solved, and if
not, what the believed causes and solutions are. Indicate what you plan to
do about the problems that are not yet solved.
Problems encountered with materials and tools of plumbers, system
controllers or caretakers? Are there sufficient supplies in stock? Give
short explanations. Indicate what you plan to do about problems
encountered that are not yet solved.
Number of leaks or other water loss problems found in the pipeline
systems. Describe in which parts of the camp the problems occur(red),
whether the problems have been solved, and if not, what the believed
causes and solutions are. Indicate what you plan to do about the
problems that are not yet solved.
Number of repairs by plumbers. Describe the large repairs and causes
of the problems shortly. If any structural action needs to be undertaken,
describe. Indicate what you plan to do about the problems that are not yet
solved.
Number of taps replaced
Number of taps repaired
Additional remarks, ideas, recommendations, questions
To be filled in by the Supervisor of the Distribution Unit. Use the back of the form or add other papers for the
explanations if there is not enough space. Try to answer brief and to the point.
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 65
4.2.6 Guards at pump stations and storage tanks
Tools/materials needed per guard:
Some kind of official costume plus badge, identity card of the organization, some kind of shelter
against the rain, possibly a raincoat.
Additional for night guards: torch, blanket.
Numbers of guards needed:
1 day guard, 2 night guards per pump station
1 day guard, 2 night guards per storage tank site
Tasks during (both for emergencies and non-emergencies):
Task
Description
Timing
Guard the
site
Go around at least once an hour and observe whether any
unauthorized people are within the pump station or storage tank
area. If observed, control whether they may have stolen or damaged
anything. If so, bring them to the supervisor (make sure not to
endanger yourself), otherwise warn them and send them away
immediately.
continuously;
go around at
least every
hour
Additional for night guards:
* Do not sleep
* If people are found who have entered the site to damage or steal
things, they should be kept at the site till the morning and be
handed over then to the supervisor or any other authority. Any
other irregularities observed or heard should be reported to him
as well.
Help with
cleaning and
repairs
Observe regularly whether the site is clean and whether there are
any repairs needed. Assist with cleaning and repairing when asked
to do so by the pump or tank operator. Report to the pump or tank
operator when you think any action is needed.
observe
continuously,
act whenever
needed
Know who is
on site
Assist with
communicati
on between
tank and
pump
stations
Make sure to know who of the staff is on site.
continuously
Assist with communication between tank and pump stations
whenever necessary (but only if guarding task is not endangered by
it).
whenever
needed
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 66
Specifications
4.2.7 Mechanics
Mechanics keep engines functioning well. They execute preventive maintenance (services) and
repairs or replacements. Mechanics should have a separate logbook for each engine, pump and
water meter under their responsibility7.
Tools/materials needed:
//make list of tools needed/////
Number of mechanics needed: one per ///?????////
Tasks during (both for emergencies and non-emergencies):
Task
Description
Timing
Specifications
Execute and
facilitate
repairs
Execute any repairs on engines or pumps when asked to do so by
any of the staff. If the repair is too difficult to execute on site
assist with contacting the appropriate persons to ensure the repair
and possibly the transport of the item to a site where it can be
repaired (e.g. a professional workshop). Coordinate with
supervisor. Fill in logbooks.
When at a pump station:
Control whether pump operator properly fulfils his tasks. Instruct
on how to improve if necessary. Also control his logbook.
Discuss the work with him. Check together with the pump
operators whether any services, repairs, calibration/cleaning of
water meter or other activities are needed (check from your and
his logbooks and check the engine, pump, and, if applicable, the
water meter).
whenever
needed
See technical
handbooks
Example of
logbook
form: see
Form ..
For
specifications
with regard to
services needed
and their timing
see Box ...
Control
whether
pump
operators
function well
and check
for need of
and execute
services and
calibrations
at the pump
stations
With regard to services:
Make sure to execute the services needed in time. Check
regularly from your own your logbooks plus the operator’s
logbook whether next service time is near, and estimate with that
when next service will be necessary. Discuss and make an
appointment for each service well in time with the involved pump
operator. For the service activities you can’t execute yourself
coordinate it to be done elsewhere or by someone else, including
temporary replacement by a spare engine, pump or water meter if
needed.
With regard to water meters:
Compare the water meter indication after 1 hour pumping with
the amount of water it is supposed to pump per hour (see also
Box ...). Usually water meters are placed directly after a pump.
The load of abrasive particles in the water should be as low as
possible otherwise the meter will become unreliable very quickly
(indicated by strange values for amounts of water pumped per
liter of fuel; see also Box ...). To avoid stopping the pump during
maintenance of the meter, the meter must be fitted with strainers
and installed on a bypass. The strainers should be cleaned at least
once a month ///by who??//. Note down when the last calibration
took place in the logbook (see Form ...) //how often does a water
meter need to be calibrated?//
Fill in
logbooks
7
Describe each service, water meter check + cleaning, repair or
other activity done in the appropriate logbooks
pass by at
each pump
station at
least once a
week.
check your
own
logbooks
regularly to
find out
whether and
at which
pump
stations
services will
soon be
needed
For control of the
pump operator
see descriptions
of his tasks (par.
..)
control water
meters at
least once a
month
fill in after
each activity
see Form 4.5
If they would not have separate logbooks and in the future they would be split and put together with other systems
confusion could easily arise about which service was actually meant for which part of equipment etc.
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 67
Box 4.4 Services needed at a diesel engine
///what about services needed for the pump??? no info on that yet: which service activities needed when
and to be executed by who???///
Services need to be carried out by a skilled mechanic. Actual servicing periods will vary between engines.
Consult the relevant handbooks if possible. The following guidelines can be used in the absence of specific
information.
Every 125 hours
All tasks described for the pump operator and the following:
Check the condition of the battery if fitted
Check for coolant leaks (water cooled)
When moderately dusty, empty dust cap/bowl and clean or replace the air cleaner element
In high ambient temperatures (above 35o C) change the engine oil and oil filter
Every 250 hours
Change the engine oil and oil filter element. Inspect drained waste oil for the presence of metallic debris
(indicates possible internal damage or excessive wear), water (will appear as separate globules or as a
creamy oil/water mix; this can indicate leakage from the cooling system), fuel (check by smell; this
indicates internal leakage from the fuel system)
Check the valve clearances
Clean or replace the injectors if the exhaust smoke is black
Renew fuel filter element if using dirty fuel
Check condition and tension of drive belts (alternator, fan, etc.), if applicable
Every 500 hours
Replace air cleaner element
Renew fuel filter element
Check exhaust and air intake for leaks, damage or restrictions
Check the battery charging system, if applicable
Replace the fan belt, if applicable
Every 1000 hours
Decarbonize only if engine performance is poor (engine will be out of action for some time; therefore
temporary replacement with a spare engine may be needed)
Clean wire gauze in engine breather, where applicable
Every 2000 hours
Decarbonize (engine will be out of action for some time; therefore temporary replacement with a spare
engine may be needed)
Check fuel injection timing
Check lubricating oil pressure
Every 6000 hours
Carry out a major overhaul
Every year
For water cooled engines: drain, flush and refill the cooling system
Source: Davis and Lambert 1995. For more detail plus information about problem detection/solving see
par. 13.2.3 of this manual.
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 68
Form 4.5
Example of mechanic’s logbook form for pump, engine or water meter
Country:______________ Camp:____________
Date
8
Engine, pump or water meter’s serial number8:_____________
Service done (indicate
Repairs executed
Other activities executed
what service)
(describe)
(describe)
Are all activities indicated in the logbooks of
the pump operator?
(Y/N)
Have a separate logbook for each pump, engine and water meter!
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 69
Name mechanic:_____________
Spare parts used
Remarks (use the
back of the form to
explain in more detail
if needed)
4.2.8 Source caretaker
Tools/materials needed:
Rubber boots, gloves, shovel, knife, panga. In some cases an adjustable spanner, screwdriver or
imbus key may be useful. Other tools/materials, if needed, can be borrowed or obtained from the
pump operator, the plumbers or the mechanics.
Number of source caretakers needed:
One per source. The tasks of a source caretaker are often executed by the pump operator and/or
(together with) the guard working in the pump station at the source.
Tasks during (both for emergencies and non-emergencies):
Task
Description
Timing
Specifications
Control and
maintain the
inlet
Control whether the inlet of the suction pipe is at the right
position. If the water level drops towards the intake of the
pump change the inlet level in the water. The pump should be
stopped whenever there is a danger that the water level drops
beyond the inlet. Never allow a pump to run dry! If the inlet
is too close to the bottom of the source it should be lifted up
and tightened to prevent it to sink towards the bottom again.
Coordinate the actions with the pump operator (it may be
necessary to stop pumping for a while during the activities).
control twice a
day and more in
case of much
fluctuation +
whenever levels
are expected to
drop or rise
fast.
Maintain and
repair whenever
needed
inlet of suction
pipe should be at
least 0.3 m
beneath the water
level (to prevent
ingress of air in
the system) and
at least 0.3 m
above the bottom
of the source (to
prevent silt from
the bottom to
enter in the inlet)
Maintain/repair the pump inlet and keep the screen clean.
Ensure that the inlet is placed in such a way that pumping silt
is avoided while keeping suction lifts and lengths to a
minimum.
Keep
surroundings in
order
Check for
contamination
Keep the surroundings of the inlet clean and maintain the
fence.
every day
Observe whether the source is being threatened by
contamination. Look for:
every day if
problems are
expected/suspec
ted
agricultural chemicals used upstream or at the level of the
intake (visit places where such contamination could occur;
contact the involved actors and discuss the problem with
them)
open defecation, washing, bathing etc. upstream or at the
level of the intake, in or near the source.
once a week if
no problems are
expected or
suspected
latrines near the intake
You can undertake appropriate action by determining where
and what contamination takes place and who are the people
involved in the contaminating activities, then contact those
people and discuss the problems with them (can also be done
together with supervisors or manager). If this does not yield
results discuss with the supervisor, overall supervisor and
supervisors of other concerned programs as well as the
manager and ask them to undertake further action (by
contacting those people, their leaders etc., developing
awareness campaigns etc.).
Communicate
to other staff
involved
In case any problems arise which require the pump connected
to the intake to stop or slow down, immediately warn the
involved pump operator.
Report immediately to the Supervisor Water Pumping and
Storage in case of serious problems.
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 70
continuously
4.2.9 Tank operators
Tools/materials needed:
Rubber boots, watch, pen, tank operators’ logbook forms (see Form ...). Other tools and materials,
if needed, can be borrowed/obtained from pump operators, plumbers or mechanics.
There should be some kind of shelter to protect the operator against sun and rain.
Number of tank operators needed:
One per tank. In many occasions other staff will take up the tasks of a tank operator. For instance
in a pumping station that also contains a tank, the pump operator or other staff working at the site
may execute the tasks of the tank operator. In the water treatment site the tasks of the tank
operator of the tank connected to the pumping station at the source may be executed by the water
treatment staff. Also the tasks of the day guard of a tank station and the tank operator may be
combined, depending on the situation.
Tasks during (both for emergencies and non-emergencies):
Task
Description
Timing
Coordinate filling
of tank with pump
operator
Whenever filling a tank which is supplied with water directly
by a pump station, make sure to warn the pump operator of that
station in time (that is well before the tank starts overflowing)
when pumping needs to stop. Avoid closing the supply line to
the tank if the pump is still running!
just before
and during
filling the
tank
Close the water
supply in time
when filling the
tank
Ensure continuous
supply of water to
tapstands
When filling a tank make sure to close the supply in time to
avoid the water to flow over.
when filling
the tank
Make sure that tapstands fed directly or indirectly by the tank
will never be without water as a result of an intermittent water
supply by the tank. Have clear arrangements with tapstand
caretakers, system controllers, pump operators and other tank
operators on how to communicate with each other to avoid such
a situation as much as possible.
continuously
Protect the site
Watch out for (potential) erosion, flooding and other hazards
which may affect the tank and take appropriate action when
needed (e.g. digging interception drains, planting grass, making
small dikes of earth, wood and/or other materials, etc.).
continuously
Specifications
important for
execution of
the task
Ask other staff to help if needed (e.g. plumbers, guard, casual
labor). Coordinate with supervisor and/or manager).
Report serious
problems
Report immediately to the Supervisor Water Pumping and
Storage, or to higher levels, if serious (potential) problems are
observed or suspected that can not easily be solved.
whenever
needed
Keep the site clean
and avoid contamination of the water
Keep the site clean. Observe whether there is anything that may
contaminate the water. If so, take appropriate action to avoid
this and report to the supervisor in case of serious problems.
continuously
Fill the logbook in
Report all actions in the logbook. This may be more important
for non-emergencies but it should be tried to also fill in a
logbook during emergencies. There should be a separate
logbook for each tank!
whenever
needed
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 71
see Form ...
Form 4.6
Example of tank operator’s logbook
Country:_______________ Camp:______________ Tank station:_______________ Tank number:______ Tank operator:________________
Date
Time at
start of
filling tank
Water level at
start of filling
tank
Water meter indication at
start of filling tank (fill in
only if water meter is available)
Water level at
end of filling
tank
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 72
Problems encountered /
repairs done
Remarks
4.2.10 Pump operators
Much information about the operation of pumps and engines, relevant for the work of pump
operators can also be found in Davis and Lambert 1995. When describing a pump station here it is
assumed that only one pumping unit (an engine plus pump) is operative. If there are more they
should be regarded administration wise as separate pump stations (thus with separate logbooks)
even if they are situated at the same site. It is possible of course that one pump operator is
responsible for two or more pumping units at the same time.
Tools/materials needed:
Measuring can for fuel, overall, rubber boots, workman’s gloves, .. adjustable spanners (sizes ..),
screwdriver, ......
Number of pump operators needed:
One per location if pumping not more than 12 hours a day and if not to much work in case of
more pumping units, otherwise two per location. It is recommended to have one or more extra
pump operators who can take over work at any of the pump stations to allow for days off for
pump operators or to fill up gaps in case pump operators fall ill, resign from their job etc.
Tasks with regard to the centrifugal pump (both for emergencies and non-emergencies):
Task
Description
Timing
Check
bearings and
lubricate or
replace when
necessary
Check whether bearings are sufficiently lubricated during pumping.
This can be done by putting a hand on the bearing house and
feeling whether it’s too hot: a bearing is too hot if a hand can not be
comfortably placed on the bearing house. Lubricate if necessary.
Bearings may need to be replaced as often as once a month if
pumping is intensive. If lubricants or new bearings are needed get
them from the stock (replace bearings together with the mechanic if
necessary).
The seals prevent the escape of pressurized water from inside the
pump along the rotating drive shaft. If they leak too much ..//what
to do???///
Control whether the pump is filled with water (unless it is a
submersible or self-priming pump), even if it has a valve to prevent
water to flow out of the pump (these often leak and then the pump
still looses water). Remove the priming plug and fill the pump
chamber and suction pipe with water whenever necessary ///can the
pump continue to pump when this is done or should it be stopped
shortly???///.
Control whether the valve in the delivery pipe is closed before
pumping starts (it is good for the pump to run for //about a minute//
against a closed valve just after starting). Make sure the valve is
opened shortly afterwards (///about one minute//) once the pump is
running (otherwise the pump will overheat and get damaged).
//a few times a
day??//
Check in logbook for need of next service. Contact mechanic in
time and agree together when he will do the service. Help him, if
possible, during servicing. Indicate in the logbook when a service is
done and when the next service will be executed (as well as the
kind of service). The mechanic should have a schedule himself and
control once in a while whether a next service is soon to be due, but
the operator should help to remember and warn the mechanic about
the need for a next service well in time.
for timing of
services see
Box .. and
handbooks of
equipment used
Check the
shaft seals
Check
priming
Close the
valve in the
delivery pipe
before
pumping
starts and
open it just
after pumping
has started.
Ensure timely
servicing
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 73
a few times a
day
Specifications
important for
execution of
the task
seals should not
leak more than
10 drips/min.
Just before
starting to
pump + several
times/day
Before starting
to pump
For overview of
services see Box
...
Tasks with regard to the diesel engine and use of fuel (for emergencies and non-emergencies):
Task
Description
Timing
Start and stop the engine
Communicate with tank operators and others
involved when pumping is needed. Whenever
starting or stopping the engine record this in the
logbook. This is very important!
Refill well in time. Record in logbook every
time when refueling. If fuel use is too high or
too low (compare with the engine’s normal fuel
use) try to find out why and take measures if
possible.
Make sure to refill well in time
whenever necessary, stop engine at
least once a day
If the system works with water coolant make
sure to refill well in time
If a battery is used: the water level should be
just above the battery plates. Fill up whenever
necessary. Use distilled water of good quality
(well distilled, not standing in store too long).
All nuts and bolts should be tightly fixed
check once a day
Refill fuel tank before it is
empty
Check engine oil level; fill up
when necessary
Check cooling water; fill up
when necessary
Check battery water level; fill
up if necessary
Check for loose nuts and bolts
Check for oil and fuel leaks
Warn the mechanic in case of
problems
Check fan belt tension, if
applicable
Check and drain the sedimentor //same as: ‘drain water from
fuel filter/agglomerator’?//
Check air filter and clean if
needed //same as ‘in very dusty
conditions, empty dust cap/
bowl of dry air cleaners’?/
Bleed air from the fuel system?
Control fuel drums and handle
them correctly
Ensure timely servicing
///Look for dripping of oil or fuel from the
engine. If detected/suspected, start with a
control of nuts and bolts, and ....... Warn the
mechanic in case you can’t solve the problem.
.... is this description correct?//
If mechanical problems are detected or
suspected close the engine and warn the
mechanic. If direct repair is not possible it may
be necessary to replace the engine temporarily
with a spare one. This should then be organized
together with the mechanic, supervisor and
others involved.
//Tighten if needed,, how??//
check several times
a day
check once a day
check once a day
check several times
a day
check several times
a day
whenever believed
necessary
once a day //?//
Check and drain the sedimentor (intercepts
water and dirt from the fuel)
///???several times
a day???///
??
daily
???
Ensure fuel drums are clean on the outside
(especially around the opening at the top). When
new drums are delivered:
check whether each fuel drum is full.
control each drum on presence of water or other
fluids (take a sample with a ‘drum thief’ as
indicated in Figure 4.....; look at the sample
and note the fluid layers; then discharge
each fluid layer into a container and try to
identify it by smell.
only sign for delivery if everything is OK (check
whether the number written on the list you
sign is the actual number of drums
delivered)
note down in the logbook the number of drums
delivered.
let fuel stand still at least 12 hours to allow
sediment and water to settle before use
Check in logbook for need of next service.
Contact mechanic in time and agree together
when he will come to do the service. Help him,
if possible, during servicing. Indicate in the
logbook when a service is done and when the
next service will have to be executed (as well as
the kind of service). The mechanic should have
a schedule himself and control once in a while
whether a next service is soon to be due, but the
daily
daily
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 74
Specifications important for execution of
the task
for timing of
services see Box ..
and the handbooks
of the equipment
used
For overview of services
see Box ...
operator should help to remember and warn the
mechanic about the need for a next service well
in time.
Other tasks
Keep the site clean
Control every day whether the pump,
engine and the direct surroundings are
clean. Clean if necessary (ask the guard or
other staff to help or completely do this).
fill in for each
action
undertaken
Report pumping
times, services, repairs, fuel use, water
meter readings and
other findings in the
logbook
////here figure 15.6, p. 490 of Davis and Lambert 1995/////
Figure 4...
continuously
Sampling using a ‘drum thief’
From Davis and Lambert, 1995
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 75
see Form 4...
Box 4.... How to determine an engine’s fuel use and the pumping rate of the
pump connected to it
To determine an engine’s fuel consumption per unit of time:
Run the engine up to normal working temperature under its normal working load.
While the engine is running fill up the fuel tank completely.
Let the engine run for a considerable time period, say 1 or 2 hours.
Refill fuel tank. Measure how many liters of fuel are needed to fill the tank completely.
Divide the total amount needed by the total number of hours the engine worked on this amount of fuel to
calculate the fuel consumption in liters per hour.
Execute this exercise two or three times. If the results do not differ much take the average of the figures
found and use this as a figure for the engine’s fuel use in liters per hour.
If the engine drives a pump which pumps water to a reservoir, the engine’s fuel consumption can be
determined in terms of fuel use per volume of water pumped as well. This can be done as follows:
Run the engine up to normal working temperature under its normal working load.
While the engine is running fill up the fuel tank completely and let at that same moment someone measure
the water level in the water reservoir.
Continue to pump water into the reservoir until the reservoir is full, then turn of the engine
Measure how much fuel was needed (fill up the fuel reservoir again and measure the amount needed).
Determine how much water was pumped into the reservoir: calculate the height of the water column
pumped into the reservoir in meters (= end level of water in reservoir - start level) and multiply with
the volume per meter of the reservoir. Volume per meter of reservoir = 1 x length x width (for square
formed reservoir, all measurements expressed in m), or 3,1416 x r2 (circular formed reservoir, with r
being half the diameter, expressed in m).
Divide amount of fuel used by the amount of water pumped to determine the fuel consumption in liters per
m3 of water pumped.
Execute this exercise two or three times. If the results do not differ much take the average of the figures
found and use this as a figure for the engine’s normal fuel use per m3 of water pumped.
If also the time is measured one can determine the average volume of water pumped per hour as well (can
also be determined by measuring at the tank directly though).
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 76
Form 4.7
next water meter service:
Example of pump operator’s logbook form
next engine service:
Country:___________ Camp:_____________ Pump station:______________ Pump operator:_________________
Date
Time
Engine
started?
(Y/N)
Engine
stopped?
(Y/N)
Refueled? (Y/N)
(if yes, how
much, write in l)
Water meter
indication (if
available)
Repairs, services, replacements etc. executed? (Y/N)
(if yes, describe)
Lubricants or spare parts
used? (Y/N) (if yes, describe
what, how much/many etc.)
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 77
next pump service:
Number of fuel drums. (fill in at the start of each
week, at the end of each week and each time when
new fuel drums are delivered)
Number of drums
Total number of drums
delivered
at the site
fig 12.4 p. 388////
Figure 4.2
End suction, single-stage centrifugal pump
From Davis and Lambert, 1995
///fig 12.7, p. 391//
Figure 4.3
Typical arrangement of centrifugal pump fittings
From Davis and Lambert, 1995
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 78
4.2.11 Supervisor Water Pumping and Storage
Tools/materials needed: pen, notebook, report forms, rubber boots
Number of Supervisors Water Pumping and Storage needed: one
Tasks (both for emergencies and non-emergencies):
Task
Description
Timing
Follow-up
on
problems
Ensure that problems reported to you or observed by yourself are
followed up, i.e. coordinate solving the problems with your unit (water
pumping and storage) and if necessary contact others to assist.
whenever needed
Hold short
meetings
with staff
Hold regular meetings with groups of staff, e.g. all pump operators, all
mechanics, all guards etc. Discuss problems encountered, ideas,
remarks and make plans together on how to solve problems, improve
the work etc. Coordinate the follow up on these meetings.
whenever
believed
necessary; keep
meetings short
and to the point
to avoid losing
time.
execute as informal or focus
group discussions (see ch. 3)
or as training
sessions
visit at least one
pump station
every day
for control of
quality of work
look at the task
descriptions of
the different staff
Meetings can be held at pump and tank stations or at any suitable place.
Inform and discuss with the manager (he may also be at or initiate
these meetings) and ask his reaction on/permission for any new plans
or ideas developed.
Specifications
important for
execution of
the task
The meetings can also be held to give short trainings to staff (often
together with the manager)
Visit pump
stations
Control the work of staff and discuss things with them. Pay special
attention to:
Cleanliness of the pump station.
Control whether pumps and engines are functioning well.
Control logbook of the pump operator (if not yet used introduce the
use of a logbook as fast as possible).
Count numbers of full fuel drums and crosscheck with logbook of the
pump operator (if no logbook used yet, instruct the pump operator to
inform you every week how many drums he has used).
Determine fuel use per hour together with pump operator: fill the
tank with fuel, let the engine run one hour under its normal work
load, then fill the tank again and measure how much fuel was
consumed. Check whether the amount used is normal (compare with
earlier figures measured for fuel use). If there are large differences
try to identify the reasons. Reasons for differences could be: 1)
change of pumping height or length (if so, the engine’s fuel
consumption measured can be regarded as the new standard, i.e. if
further the engine functions well and pumping has been done as it
will be done in the coming future), 2) engine less efficient because it
is getting old, it needs servicing or a repair (discuss with mechanic if
this is suspected), 3) the fuel use is wrongly measured (if this is a
possibility, measure again).
Compare whether the measured fuel use is consistent with the
number of fuel drums emptied (e.g. calculate from the pump
operator’s logbook the number of engine hours for a certain period
and multiply with its normal fuel use per hour; the total can be
compared with the number of drums emptied during that time). If not
the same try to identify the reasons (could be: theft, poor
measurements, poor registration, etc.)
Check whether the staff visited still have their materials, tools and
equipment. Ask about the reason if things are lacking. Organize to
renew these things if needed only if they have good reasons,
otherwise investigate.
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 79
Control fuel use
and compare
with fuel drums
emptied at each
pump station at
least once a week
Check materials
etc. at each pump
station at least
once a month
See Box ... for
further details on
how to determine
an engine’s fuel
use
Tasks (both for emergencies and non-emergencies) (continued):
Visit tank
stations
Control the work of staff and discuss things with them. Pay special
attention to:
Cleanliness of the tank stations.
visit at least
one tank
station every
day
for control of
quality of work
look at the task
descriptions of
the different
staff
look at task
description
source
caretaker
Signs of erosion. If so discuss what action is needed to prevent erosion
especially if it could undermine the tank. Coordinate action.
Discuss with caretakers and the responsible system controllers of the
tapstands connected to the tank whether they have problems with water
availability at those tapstands.
Control the logbook of the tank operator (if used; otherwise introduce it
as fast as possible).
Check whether the guards and tank operator at the site still have their
materials, tools and equipment. Ask about the reason if things are
lacking. Organize to renew these things if needed only if they have
good reasons, otherwise investigate.
Visit
source
intakes
Check cleanliness of the site. Check whether the intake is rightly
positioned in the source. Discuss problems and threats to the source
(pollution etc.). Check whether the source caretaker still has the materials
and tools for the work. Follow-up on the outcome of the visit if
necessary.
once a week
Control
the work
of the
mechanics
Go with them and observe their work. Check their logbooks and control
whether services have been done in time (crosscheck if necessary with
logbooks of pump operators). Discuss with the mechanics about
problems encountered, how things can be improved etc. Check whether
they still have the materials and tools for the work. Follow-up on the
outcome.
once a week
for each
mechanic
during a couple
of hours.
Meet with
other
supervisor
s and the
manager
Meet with and discuss about problems, ideas and plans with the manager,
other supervisors of the piped water program and supervisors of other
programs as well, for instance the hygiene education program, toilet
program, etc. (such meetings are often called for by the manager but they
can also be initiated by any of the supervisors and do not necessarily
always have to be held together with the manager). Make sure always to
discuss the outcome of the meetings with the manager and ask his
opinion about and permission for plans, ideas etc.
regularly, e.g.
once every 2 to
6 days
can be informal
meetings or
focus group
discussions;
see chapter 3.
Fill in
weekly
report
At the end of each week get the logbooks of that week from the tank
operators, the pump operators and the mechanics. With the information
from the logbooks and the information obtained during the week through
observing and control of all activities fill in the weekly report (during
observations certain details can be filled in directly in the weekly report,
so always take it with you). Provide a copy to the program manager and
give further oral explanations if believed necessary.
once a week
see Form ...
Control of
spare parts
used and
tools,
equipment
and spare
parts at
the site
Report
large
problems
immediatel
y
Control the tools, equipment, and spare parts at each site, based on your
observations during the month, and the logbooks of pump and tank
operators and the mechanics. Make an overview of all spare parts used
during that month. Then crosscheck the results with the bookkeeping of
the field administrator. Also adapt lists with tools, equipment and spare
parts available at each site. Give comments in the last weekly report of
the month.
once a month
Report all large problems immediately to the overall supervisor and the
manager, especially if they can not be solved immediately. If theft is
suspected or detected this should always be reported to the manager.
continuously
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 80
Form 4.8 Example of report forms to be filled in each week by the
Supervisor Water Pumping and Storage1
Country:______________________
Camp:_________________
Date:_____________________________
Name of Supervisor:___________________________
PUMPS
Pump
station 1
Pump
station 2
Pump
station 3
Pump
station 42
Serial numbers of pump and engine
Name of responsible pump operator
Total actual fuel consumption (in liters)
Sum up the fuel consumption for the whole week from the pump
operator’s logbook
Total number of fuel drums used (= sum of drums
delivered during the week + no. of drums at site at start of the week
- no. of drums at site at the end of the week; figures to be obtained
from pump operator’s logbook). Compare whether this is consistent
with the ‘total actual fuel consumption ’ and with the ‘total
theoretic fuel consumption’ (1 drum = 200 l).
Total time of engine operation (in hours)
Sum up from the pump operator’s logbook all periods the engine
was operating during that week
Engine’s normal fuel consumption (in l/hour)
Total theoretic fuel consumption (in liters)
(= ‘total time of engine operation’ x the ‘engine’s normal fuel
consumption’; write down the answer in l of fuel). Give comments
if this figure differs substantially from the ‘total actual fuel
consumption’
Total theoretic water production (in m3)
(= ‘total time of engine operation’ x the pump’s normal water
production; determine for each pump station, write down in m3 of
water). Compare this figure with the total actual water production
(sum of water fillings in the tank to which the pump pumps,
indicated in the tank operators’ logbook; this is the same as what
you fill in for that tank in this same weekly report under ‘total
volume of water that passed through the tank’)
Problems with pumps and engines
Only describe pump or engine replacements and problems with
pumps and engines which are not yet solved or which need further
follow-up; give recommendations for solving the problems.
Services done. Check both the logbooks of the pump operators
and of the mechanics. Were they on schedule? Was the service well
done? If not explain
Spare parts used
Problems with fuel
Describe problems with fuel (e.g. fuel drums not full when
delivered, fuel mixed with other liquids etc.)
Comments about functioning of guards, pump
operators and mechanics
Consumption of lubricants
1
2
Mainly for non-emergencies, but to be introduced as fast as possible. Use the back of the form or add other papers
for the explanations if there is not enough space. Try to answer brief and to the point.
If there are more pumps and engines use a second form. Also try, if applicable, to get figures from pump stations
operated by other organizations to get a good overall picture (then indicate which pump stations are from your and
which are from other organizations).
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 81
com
pare
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 82
Water tanks
Water tank 1
Water tank 2
Problems encountered with tanks. Only
describe the problems which are not yet solved,
explain and give recommendations
Volume per meter height (in m3)
Total volume (in m3)
Total water volume of water that passed
through the tank (in m3)
Get info from logbook: sum up all the meters of tank
height that passed through and multiply with the
volume per meter height of the considered tank.
Other issues
Total number of pump stations visited during the week
How much water goes to:
1. domestic use by the target population;
2. domestic use by others than the target population;
3. irrigation
4. small industrial activities
5. other activities (describe)
(answer together with the supervisor of the distribution unit)
Total number of tank stations visited during the week
Number of mechanics controlled during the week
Did you visit the source?
Turbidity of the water in the source (comment if much
difference with figure of week before)
Problems encountered with the source.
At the stations visited: were all tools, materials and
equipment still available. Comment if not
Remarks with regard to safety issues
Any problems, remarks, questions not covered yet? Give
recommendations, ideas etc.
1
If there are more tank stations add another form.
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 83
Water tank 3
Water tank
41
4.2.12 Guards of the water treatment site
Tools/materials needed per guard:
Some kind of official costume plus badge, identity card of the organization, some kind of shelter
against the rain, possibly a raincoat.
Additional for night guards: torch, blanket.
Numbers of guards needed:
At least one day guard and two night guards
Tasks (both for emergencies and non-emergencies):
Task
Description
Timing
Guard the site
Go around at least once an hour and observe whether any
unauthorized people are within the water treatment area. If
observed, control whether they may have stolen or damaged
anything. If so, bring them to the supervisor (make sure not to
endanger yourself), otherwise warn them and send them away
immediately.
continuously;
go around at
least every
hour
Additional for night guards:
Do not sleep
If people are found at the site who have damaged or stolen things,
they should be kept there till the morning and be handed over
then to the supervisor or any other authority. Any other
irregularities observed or heard should be reported to him as
well.
Help with
cleaning and
repairs
For day guards: Observe regularly whether the site is clean and
whether there are any repairs needed. Assist with cleaning and
repairing when asked to do so by the staff at the treatment site.
Report to the staff and/or supervisor when you think any cleaning
or repair is needed.
observe
continuously,
act whenever
needed
Know who is
on site
Make sure to know who of the staff is on site.
continuously
Assist with
communicatio
n between
treatment site
and pump
stations if
possible
Assist with communication between the treatment site and pump
stations connected to the site whenever necessary (but only if
guarding task is not endangered by it).
whenever
needed
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 84
Specifications
important for
execution of
the task
4.2.13 Water treatment staff
Depending on the water treatment methods used in the treatment plant the operational tasks can be
divided by and between the staff available. The operational tasks are here described mainly per
treatment step (with exception of a few general tasks that should be carried out by all staff).
Tools/materials needed:
For each staff: rubber boots, plastic gloves, workman’s gloves, overall, eye mask, mouth
protection mask,
General: 5 shovels, 3 picks, 3 hoes, one color comparator, 300 free residual chlorine testing
tablets (DPD1), logbook forms for the different treatment steps, 3 long sticks, 3 brooms, 3 buckets
normal size, 2 large size buckets (100 l), three measuring cans of different sizes, measuring
spoons or cups, ......
Number of water treatment staff needed:
Usually two to three operators who divide tasks among them and help each other when necessary.
One of these people acts as the supervisor but in the same time also executes part of the tasks
described here.
General tasks (both for emergencies and non-emergencies; to be executed by all staff):
Task
Description
Timing
Keep the site
clean
Keep the site clean and free from vegetation,
every day
Check for
leaks
Check regularly for leaks in pipes, valves, tanks and other parts (danger
for erosion by leaking water and for contamination entering in the
system!!!) and repair when necessary (or get the plumbers to do it).
every day
Check for
adequate
drainage
Check for adequate drainage to prevent erosion of tank foundations.
Improve drainage if necessary
every day
Coordinate
water flows
Regulate (coordinate with all involved) the inflow and outflow of the
tanks.
whenever
needed
Coordinate
actions with
pump stations
Communicate and coordinate with the station pumping water to the
treatment site and the station(s) receiving water directly from the
treatment site to ensure that pumps do not run dry and tanks do not fall
empty.
every day
Report
problems
Report all serious problems immediately to the manager.
whenever
needed
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 85
Specifications
important for
execution of
the task
Tasks with regard to sedimentation and storage of raw water (for emergencies and nonemergencies):
Task
Description
Timing
Check the
overflow
and
drainage
system
Control whether it is not obstructed. Keep the drainage
system clean to prevent possible erosion and overflowing of
the site.
every day
Clean and
desludge the
tank
Determine the need for desludging:
Sludge should be removed well before it starts to mix with the
water streaming into the outlet pipe of the tank. One can
determine the need for desludging in the following ways
Desludging is usually
needed only once in a
few months but the
actually required interval
should be determined
through measurements
and observations
(measure turbidities
every day and observe
the sludge layer once a
week or so when the
tank is empty) as the
actually required
desludging interval
depends very much on
the circumstances
Check the turbidities of the in- and outflowing water (see
below). If the turbidity of the outflowing water is increasing
while the turbidity of the inflowing water does not change
much then desludging is needed.
Observe the sludge layer when the tank has no water.
The desludging interval is variable because turbidities of the
water entering the tank may vary (e.g. in the rainy season
often turbidities are higher) and therewith the speed of sludge
building up in the tank.
Desludge as follows:
When the tank is almost empty, disconnect the outlet from the
pipe system and open it so that all remaining water flows out
into the drainage system. Then enter the tank on bare feet.
With plastic buckets and other not too hard materials which
could damage the lining and by letting some water flow in the
tank and mix with the sludge (by stirring) scoop the sludge +
water towards the outlet. Continue until most sludge is
drained out of the tank.
Specifications
important for
execution of
the task
sludge level
should be at least
10 cm below the
lowest part of the
outlet.
for turbidity
measurements see
...
Clean the sides of the
tank whenever
desludging plus
whenever algae growth
or other contaminations
become a problem
Clean as follows:
When desludging also clean the walls of the tank on the inside
//(only with water??)//. This should also be done when much
algae growth is apparent on the inner walls after emptying a
tank.
Dispose of sludge and cleaning water as follows:
Although the sludge will probably not constitute any major
health threat it is best when desludging to ensure that the
sludge and/or the water used to flush out and clean the tank is
safely drained, well away from any water sources, agricultural
land or inhibited area.
Determine
the amount
of water
passing
through the
tank
Measure the water height in tank each time just before
emptying starts and again when emptying stops. Note
down the results in the logbook. The easiest way of working
is to empty the tank completely and then fill it completely, so
that measuring of the water height is not needed (you can then
indicate in the logbook the numbers of full tanks emptied).
measure each time when
emptying the tank
for an example of
the logbook see
Form 4...
Determine
the turbidity
of the water
Measure the turbidity of both the inflowing and
outflowing water. Note down the results in the logbook.
measure at least once a
day
for an example of
the logbook see
Form 4...
for turbidity
measurements see
...
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 86
Form 4.9
Example of logbook form for tank receiving water from the pump station at the source
Country:_____________________
Date
Name operator
Camp:__________________
Time at
start of
filling tank
Water level
at start of
filling tank
Name of treatment site:____________________ Tank number:_________
Water meter indication at start of filling
tank (fill in only
Water level at
end of filling
tank
if water meter is available)
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 86
Turbidity
(measure at least once a day)
inflowing
water
outflowing
water
Cleaning and/ or
desludging activities
undertaken? (Y/N)
(describe)
Tasks with regard to horizontal-flow roughing filters (HRF) (emergencies and non-emergencies):
1
Task
Description
Timing
Specifications
important for execution of the task
Keep HRF
outflow
constant and
below its
maximum
allowed rate1
If the outflow is too high cut down the inflow
by partly closing the inlet valve. Try to keep a
constant outflow. Note down the outflow rate in
the logbook. It can be determined by catching
the water flowing out of the filter in a bucket of
known volume measuring the time to fill it, then
calculate the outflow in l/s (if water flows out
through a V-notch or other weir, the rate can be
determined by measuring the height of the
outflowing water above the bottom of the weir
and using this figure in the equation specific for
that weir). One can also place a mark at the side
in the outflow channel to indicate the maximum
height of water column corresponding with the
maximum outflow. This makes it easy to
observe when the outflow is too high.
Measure the outflow
from the roughing filter
//daily?/
For further
information about
weirs see Appendix 9
in Davis and
Lambert, 1995 and
other technical
handbooks
Measure
turbidity of
inflowing and
outflowing
water
Note down the figure(s) measured in the
logbook. If the turbidity of the inflowing water
is higher than normal check whether anything is
wrong with the treatment steps before HRF. If
so discuss with the involved staff and try to
determine and solve the problems. If due to
higher turbidity of raw water assess whether the
turbidity of the outflowing water is still
sufficient (and if not assess how this can be
improved, e.g. by introducing additional
treatments to reduce turbidity). If the turbidity
of the outflowing water is higher than normal
while there are no large differences in the
turbidity of the inflowing water then cleaning of
the filter is necessary.
Measure at least once a
day
For how turbidities
can be measured see
...
Keep the
water level
high enough
It should be prevented that the water level goes
down too much (as this would enhance the
growth of algae). Therefore the water level
should be regularly checked and its height
adapted if necessary. Adapting the inlet and/or
outlet valve openings can do this.
Check the water level in
the roughing filter //at
least once a day??//
Clean the
HRF
Cleaning should be done by drainage of the
filter (open the outlet drain valve) which will
cause sediment to be washed to the filter bottom
and flushed out with the accumulated sludge.
Complete removal of the filter media for
cleaning is only necessary after several years.
Note down in the logbook the expected date of
the next cleaning/flushing.
Clean 1-2 times a month
(wet season), 2-3
times/month (dry season)
but may have to be more
often if filter is small or
particle load of raw
water large. Also clean
whenever the turbidity of
the outflowing water
rises while turbidity of
the inflowing water does
not change much (see
above).
If the treatment step
after the roughing filtration is slow sand
filtration or chlorination the turbidity
should not be higher
than 20 NTU (emergencies) or 5 NTU
(non-emergencies,
preferably even <
1NTU).
The water level
should be kept at 10
cm below the top of
the filter media.
The figure for the maximum allowed outflow rate should be provided by the constructors of the facility; it can be
calculated when knowing the surface of the roughing filter and the allowed filtration rate or surface loading of the
filter which is the allowed inflow in the filter in m3/h per m2 of the filter surface. The filtration rate depends on
factors such as the particle load of the raw water, size of the filter, sorts and particle sizes of filter material used etc.;
see also Davis and Lambert, 1995, p. 324-329.
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 90
//here Figure 11.21, p. 325 of Davis and Lambert 1995////
Figure 4.3
The main features of a rectangular horizontal-flow roughing filter
From Davis and Lambert, 1995. Original source: Wegelin, 1986.
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 91
next cleaning:
Form 4.10 Example of logbook form for roughing filter
Country:_________________________
Date
Name operator
Camp:________________________
Outflow from filter (note
down in l/s or in seconds needed
to fill the bucket; measure at
least once a day)
Name of treatment plant:______________________
Turbidity (in NTU)
(measure at least once a day)
inflowing water
outflowing water
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 90
Cleaning activities undertaken (describe)
Tasks with regard to coagulation and flocculation with aluminum sulfate (emergencies and nonemergencies):
Task
Description
Timing
Check the
overflow +
drainage
system
Control whether it is not obstructed. Keep the drainage system clean to prevent
possible erosion and overflowing of the site.
every day
Coagulate
and
flocculate
the water
Prepare the coagulant solution //// how??./////
Prepare the
solution just before
filling a tank with
water
Fill a tank completely with water and make sure that the required amount of
aluminum sulfate is mixed as rapid as possible in the water just before entering the
tank (this is called coagulation; it can be done by adding the coagulant solution into
the stream at the point where the water is entering the tank).
Stir the water gently for at least 30 minutes to encourage the formation and
settlement of flocs (flocculation) following the rapid mixing. The incoming water
should preferably be directed around the periphery of a circular tank to provide the
gentle motion needed to effect an optimal flocculation process; otherwise stirring
with a long wooden pole may do.
Always empty a tank completely to fill it up afterwards again with a new load of
water (coordinate with the people responsible for the tanks delivering water to and
the tanks receiving water from the flocculation tanks). Note down each tank
emptied in the logbook
Specifications
important for
execution of
the task
for an example of
the logbook see
Form 4.11
Let flocculation
continue for at
least 30 minutes
note down in the
logbook each time
when emptying a
tank.
Measure the
pH of the
water
If the pH gets out of the 6<pH<8 range a new jar test (see p. ... of Davis and
Lambert 1995) will be needed to determine the aluminum dosage required and
possibly coagulation may not be a suitable treatment any more. Therefore if the pH
is out of this range contact the manager immediately and discuss together the
measures to be taken.
measure once a
day if the pH is
known to fluctuate, otherwise once
a week to once a
month
pH should be
between 6 and 8
Clean and
desludge the
tank
Determine the need for desludging:
Sludge should be removed well before it starts to mix with the water streaming into
the outlet of the tank. One can determine the need for desludging as follows:
Desludging is
probably needed
once every one to
two months but the
actually required
interval should be
determined
through
measurements and
observations
(measure turbidities every day and
observe the sludge
layer once a week
or so when the
tank is empty) as
the actually required desludging
interval depends
very much on the
circumstances
sludge level
should be at least
10 cm below the
lowest part of the
outlet.
measure at least
once a day
logbook: Form
4.11
Check the turbidities of the in- and outflowing water (see below). If the turbidity of
the outflowing water is increasing while the turbidity of the inflowing water does
not change much then desludging is needed.
Observe the sludge layer when the tank has no water.
The desludging interval is variable because turbidities of the water entering the tank
may vary (e.g. in the rainy season often turbidities are higher) and therewith the
speed of sludge building up in the tank.
Desludge as follows:
When the tank is almost empty, disconnect the outlet from the pipe system and
open it so that all remaining water flows out into the drainage system. Then enter
the tank wearing overall, ///eye protection mask (??)//, plastic gloves and rubber
boots (to prevent contact with the sludge as much as possible as it contains harmful
chemicals), but be careful not to damage the lining of the tank. With plastic buckets
and other not too hard materials which could damage the lining and by letting some
water flow in the tank and mix with the sludge (by stirring) scoop the sludge +
water towards the outlet. Continue until most sludge is drained out of the tank. Also
clean the walls of the tank on the inside //(only with water??)//.
for turbidity
measurements
see ...
Dispose of sludge and cleaning water as follows:
The sludge contains chemicals that can be harmful. It is therefore best when
desludging to ensure that the sludge and the water used to flush out and clean the
tank is safely drained, well away from any water sources, agricultural land or
inhabited area.
Determine
the turbidity
of the water
Measure the turbidity of both the inflowing and outflowing water. Note down the
results in the logbook.
turbidity measurements: ...
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 90
Form 4.11 Example of logbook form for coagulation and flocculation
Country:_____________________
Date
Name operator
Camp:__________________
Time at start
of emptying
tank
Next date of desludging:
Name of treatment site:____________________ Tank number:_________
Was it a full tank
and was it emptied
completely?
Water meter indication at start of filling
tank (fill in only if water
(if not, explain)
meter is available)
pH
Turbidity (in NTU)
(measure at least once a day)
(describe)
inflowing water
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 92
Desludging activities
undertaken? (Y/N)
outflowing water
Tasks with regard to slow sand filtration (both for emergencies and non-emergencies):
Task
Description
Timing
Check the
overflow +
drainage
system
Control whether it is not obstructed. Keep the drainage system
clean to prevent possible erosion and overflowing of the site.
every day
Keep the
inflow at a
constant rate
and ensure a
layer of
water on top
of the filter
bed
The inflow should be as constant as possible and should not be too
high (would affect the filtration quality) nor too low (would
increase the danger for falling dry of the filter bed). If the flow is
too high decrease it by further closing the inlet valve. If the flow is
too low further open it. Prevention of a too high water layer can be
automatically arranged with a ball float valve (which however does
not take away the need to control regularly whether the water layer
is not too thin). When the filter bed is dry for more than one day it
has to be drained completely (just adding water again would then
give anaerobic conditions in the filter which can cause a lasting bad
taste to the water): close all valves except the inlet valve, wait until
there is a water layer on top of the filter bed again, then open the
drain valve and let water pass through for about ...??... hours; then
close the drain valve and continue the filtration process as normal.
Measure the
inflow in the
tank once a
day
Observe
regularly
whether there
is still a
sufficient
layer of water
on top of the
filter bed
The flow of water can be determined with a water meter (make sure
it is calibrated properly; see Box ...) or by catching the inflowing
water in a container of known volume and measuring the time to
fill it, then calculate the outflow (if a V-notch or other weir is
placed, the outflow can be determined by measuring the water level
above the weir and entering the measurement in the equation
specific for that weir; e.g. see Appendix 9 in Davis and Lambert,
1995).
Specifications
important for
execution of
the task
The inflow should
not exceed 0.3 x
the surface area in
m2 of the filter
(gives the
maximum inflow
rate in m3/h;
divide by 3.6 to
get an answer in
l/s; but better is to
have an inflow
rate of 0.2 x the
surface area or
even lower).
Optimally there
should be a layer
of .... cm of water
on top of the filter
bed
Scrape the
filter
The filter should be cleaned by scraping off the ‘schmutzdecke’, a
thin top layer of about 2 cm thick, of sand and impurities, when this
layer starts to obstruct the flow of water through the filter too
much. This can easily be determined: when the inflow clearly needs
to be decreased in comparison to its normal rate scraping will be
needed. During scraping leave water in the filter at 20 cm below the
surface of the sand. Scrape with a long stick to which a horizontal
piece of wood is fixed at the end that will allow for equal,
horizontal scraping of thin layers. Put the scraped sand in buckets
to transport it out of the filter and leave it on site (it will be washed
and re-used later when fully replacing the filter bed). Note down
scrapings in the logbook including the expected date of the next
scraping.
Scrape 2 to 20
weeks after
the last scraping (interval
depends on
turbidity of
the water, tank
design etc.
and should be
determined in
practice)
for logbook see
example in Form
...
Determine
the turbidity
of the water
Measure the turbidity of both the inflowing and outflowing water.
Note down the results in the logbook.
measure at
least once a
day
logbook: Form
4.12
If turbidity if inflowing water is too high another treatment process
should be added before the slow sand filter (e.g. coagulation and
flocculation or roughing filtration).
If the turbidity of the outflowing water is too high while the
turbidity of the inflowing water is acceptable one should probably
scrape the filter (see above). If this does not yield sufficient effect it
will probably mean that the design of the filter is not correct:
discuss with manager and others what measures should be taken in
this case.
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 92
turbidity measurements: ...
max. turbidity of
inflowing water:
20 NTU (up to
200 NTU can be
tolerated for a few
days).
max. allowable
turbidity of
outflowing water:
... NTU
Tasks with regard to slow sand filtration (both for emergencies and non-emergencies)
(continued):
Task
Description
Timing
Replace
filter bed
The filter bed should be replaced when the thickness of the sand
layer is 0.6 m or less. Check this by sticking a long thin stick (e.g.
an iron concrete weapening bar) into the layer till reaching the
bottom of the sand layer, indicate the level of the surface on the
stick, remove and then measure the thickness. To replace the filter
bed:
Usually
needed once
only in a few
years but this
may be much
shorter if
scrapings are
need more
often. This
may also
change over
time etc.
stop the inflow,
when the filter is dry, take out all the filter sand,
wash all the sand taken out + the sand removed during earlier
scrapings (see p. 334 of Davis and Lambert 1995 for how to wash),
fill the filter with cleaned sand (add new additional sand if needed)
to its original level,
open the inlet valve to allow water to flow in.
After replacing the filter bed it may take up to two days before the
quality of the water has reached normal operational standards. It is
therefore best to let this water drain away. If water is scarce
however, it may have be used anyway. This may be acceptable as
the filter will directly start to reduce at least some of the bacteria
(and when chlorine is added after filtration this will sufficiently
safeguard the quality of the water!). When filling the filter for the
first time or when new sand is needed due to losses of sand, try to
use locally available sand that is suitable for the filter. This will
save time and expenses (in comparison to transporting especially
suitable sand over long distances to the site) and usually gives very
acceptable results. For determining the suitability of sand for a slow
sand filtration see Davis and Lambert, 1995, p. 333.
Put here figure 11.25 p. 334 of Davis and Lambert 1995
Figure ..
Washing the filter sand
From Davis and Lambert, 1995.
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 93
Therefore it is
recommended
to check the
thickness of
the sand layer
every time
when scraping
the filter
Specifications
important for
execution of
the task
Next expected date of scraping:
Form 4.12 Example of logbook form for a slow sand filter
Country:___________________
Date
Name operator
Camp:__________________
Water level
above filter bed
Next expected date of filter bed change:
Name of treatment site:__________________ Water filter number:_______
Inflow rate (in l/s or seconds
needed to fill a bucket)
Turbidity (in NTU)
(measure at least once a day)
Scraping done or filter
bed changed? (Y/N)
(describe)
(in cm)
inflowing water
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 94
outflowing water
Tasks with regard to chlorination (both for emergencies and non-emergencies):
Task
Description
Timing
Check the
overflow +
drainage
system
Control whether it is not obstructed. Keep the drainage system clean to
prevent possible erosion and overflowing of the site.
every day
Add
chlorine to
the water
Measure: 1) the amount of chlorine powder needed with a measuring
cup and put in a reservoir, or 2) the amount of chlorine solution needed
free residual
chlorine level
should be
measured
after 30
minutes of
contact time
Empty the reservoir with the chlorine powder in a full tank of water and
stir gently with a long stick to dissolve it, or 2) add the chlorine solution
to the inflow of the water in the tank, for instance with a dripping
device (see e.g. p. 344 of Davis and Lambert 1995; dripping devices
should be controlled and recalibrated regularly!).
After 30 minutes measure the free residual chlorine level with the color
comparator (see Box ... and Figure ...).
If the free residual chlorine level measured is too low, add chlorine,
wait another 30 min and measure again. If the residual free chlorine
level is too high then either drain away part of the water and refill with
unchlorinated water or pump part of the water to another tank and then
add unchlorinated water until an acceptable low level is established.
Assess together with the manager why levels found were too high or
too low and develop appropriate action (e.g. adapt the amount of
chlorine added to the water) if necessary.
discuss with
system
controllers to
assess free
residual
chlorine
levels at the
tapstands
every day
Then release the tank load into the pipeline system
Fill up the tank after it is emptied with new, unchlorinated water and
start chlorinating again..
Register tank loads released into the system and their residual free
chlorine levels in the logbook (see Form 4.13).
Assess with different system controllers what the free residual chlorine
levels are at the tapstands. If these are too low or too high the amount of
chlorine added to the water should be adjusted accordingly. Contact the
manager in case of very big differences with what is normal in the
system.
Handle
chlorine
correctly
and safely
and
control its
availability
There should always be a chlorine supply on site sufficient for about 6
to 10 days, not more and not less
Specifications
important for
execution of
the task
Wear gloves, eye
protection and a
mouth cap
whenever
handling
chlorine powder.
The required
free residual
chlorine level
should have
been determined.
It is a level that
is high enough to
assure a residual
free chlorine
level at the
tapstands of 0,3 0,6 mg/l. If this
turns out to be
more than 1,0
mg/l check for
contamination
entering in the
system’s chain
after
chlorination.
continuously
Chlorine should be stored in a dry place, away from heat and sunlight,
and in corrosion resistant containers that are closed each time directly
after taking out the chlorine needed.
When new chlorine is arriving, check the expiry date.
Chlorine is a powerful oxidizing agent, handle it with care and store in
a safe place where no unauthorized persons can have access to it.
When handling chlorine wear rubber boots, an overall, plastic gloves,
eye protection and mouth protection.
Check pH
and
turbidity
Check pH (see Box ... and Figure ...) and the turbidity (see Box ...).
Chlorination is considerably less effective when the pH is greater than 8
or when the turbidity >5 NTU. In an emergency turbidities up to 20
NTU can be accepted (this will however mean that high chlorine
dosages will be needed). Such high dosages should be minimized as
much as possible though and not be continued longer than .... days in a
row . In case of too high turbidities one should implement treatment
methods to diminish the turbidity. Register the results of the
measurements in the logbook
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 95
check pH and
turbidity
once a day
pH should be < 8
Turbidity should
preferably be < 1
NTU (5 NTU is
still acceptable
and 20 NTU is
acceptable
temporarily in
emergencies)
Form 4.13 Example of chlorinator’s logbook
Country:___________________ Camp:_________________
Date
Name
operator
Time
Tank
filled?
(Y/N)
Name of treatment plant:________________ Chlorine tank number:________
Turbidity (in NTU)
pH
(measure just before
adding chlorine to the
water, once a day)
(measure just before adding
chlorine to the water, once a day)
Amount of chlorine
added (in grams or number
Chapter 4 : Drinking water
p. 96
of standard cups of which
volume is known)
Residual free chlorine level (in mg/l)
(measure for each tank load after a contact
time of the chlorine with the water of 30
minutes)
4.2.14 Supervisor Water Treatment
Tools/materials needed:
pen, notebook, report forms, rubber boots
Number of Supervisors Water Treatment needed: one
Tasks (both for emergencies and non-emergencies):
Task
Description
Timing
Specifications
important for
execution of
the task
Execute part
of the tasks
described
for water
treatment
staff
The supervisor water treatment often fulfils part of the tasks of the
water treatment staff himself (together with all staff a division of
tasks is made) depending on the amount of work of the below tasks.
continuously
see task
descriptions of
water treatment
staff
Follow-up
on problems
Ensure that problems reported to you or observed by yourself are
followed up, i.e. coordinate solving the problems with your unit
(water treatment) and if necessary contact others to assist.
whenever
needed
Hold short
meetings
with staff
Hold regular meetings with all staff of your unit together. Discuss
problems encountered, ideas, remarks and make plans together on
how to solve problems, improve the work etc. Coordinate the follow
up on these meetings. Such meetings are usually held at the water
treatment site but can also be held at any other suitable place. Inform
and discuss with the manager (he may also be at or initiate these
meetings sometimes) and ask his reaction on/permission for any new
plans or ideas developed. The meetings can also be held to give
short trainings to the staff (often together with the manager)
whenever
believed
necessary; keep
meetings short
and to the point
to avoid losing
time.
execute as informal or focus
group discussions (see ch. 3)
or as training
sessions
Visit the
treatment
steps
Control the work of staff and discuss things with them (instruct how
to improve, discuss what can be done to improve/solve problems).
Pay special attention to:
visit each
treatment step
at least once a
day and
whenever
believed
necessary
for control of
quality of work
look at the task
descriptions for
the different
water treatment
steps
Cleanliness of the site in general.
Capacity of and any possible obstructions in the drainage systems
Signs of erosion undermining or threatening the tanks
Control whether the treatment steps visited are functioning well.
Dosing and proper application of chemicals used
Safety of working (especially when applying or in contact with
chemicals or sludge containing chemicals)
Measuring of water flows, turbidities, pH and free residual chlorine
levels.
Control the logbooks of the treatment steps visited (if not yet used
introduce the use of logbooks as fast as possible). Also make
crosschecks: e.g. outflow from one tank should be the same as the
inflow of the tank connected to it, same for turbidities etc.
Check whether the staff visited still have their materials, tools and
equipment. Ask about the reason if things are lacking. Organize to
renew these things if needed only if they have good reasons,
otherwise investigate.
Tasks (both for emergencies and non-emergencies) (continued):
Task
Description
Timing
Specifications
important for
execution of
the task
Meet with
other
supervisors
and the
manager
Meet and discuss problems, ideas and plans with manager, other
supervisors of the program and supervisors of other programs as
well, for instance the hygiene education program, toilet program,
etc. (such meetings are often called for by the manager but they can
also be initiated by any of the supervisors and do not necessarily
always have to be held together with the manager). Make sure
always to discuss the outcome of the meetings with the manager and
ask his opinion about and permission for plans, ideas etc.
regularly, e.g.
once every few
days to once a
month
can be informal
meetings or
focus group
discussions; see
chapter 3.
Meet with
pump and
tank
operators
and system
controllers
Visit pump and tank operators who receive or deliver water to/from
the treatment site in order to get comments from them about
coordination matters and whether they face any problems related to
the treatment site. Also contact some of the system controllers
responsible for some parts near the treatment site to discuss things.
Follow up on the outcome of the discussions.
contact once a
week to once a
month to
discuss things
shortly
see informal
meetings in
chapter 3
Fill in
weekly
report
At the end of each week get the logbooks of that week from the
different treatment steps. With the information from the logbooks
and the information obtained during the week through observing and
control of all activities fill in the weekly report (during observations
certain details can be filled in directly in the weekly report, so
always take it with you). Filling in the report can also be done
together with other staff. Provide a copy to the program manager and
give further oral explanations if believed necessary.
once a week
see Form 4.14
Control of
spare parts
used and
tools,
equipment
and spare
parts at the
site
Count all tools, equipment, and spare parts at the site. Make an
overview of all spare parts used during that month based on your
observations during the month, and all logbooks. Crosscheck the
results with the bookkeeping of the field administrator and lists of
former months. Give comments, especially if anything is missing.
once a month
Report large
problems
immediately
Report all large problems immediately to the overall supervisor and
the manager, especially if they can not be solved immediately. If
theft is suspected or detected this should always be reported to the
manager.
continuously
Form 4.14 Example of weekly report by the Supervisor of the Water
Treatment Site
Country:________________
Camp:__________________
Date:_______________
Name water treatment site:__________________ Name Supervisor:____________________
Total number of water treatment staff (including supervisor)
Total number of other staff (guards, ..)
Total amount of water pumped into the water tank receiving water
from the pump station at the source (in liters, m3, or number of tank
loads if tank volumes are the same and known). Comment in case the
amount differs much from former weeks.
Maximum, minimum and average turbidity determined in the water
flowing into the sedimentation tank water (in NTU). Comment in case
values found differ much from former weeks or if large differences
occurred during the week.
Maximum, minimum and average turbidity determined in the water
flowing out of the last turbidity reducing treatment step (in NTU).
Comment in case values found differ much from former weeks or if large
differences occurred during the week)
Describe any other problems encountered with turbidity levels
Was any cleaning, desludging or scraping activities undertaken?
(Y/N). (If yes, describe shortly)
Total outflow during the whole week from last treatment step (in liters,
m3, or number of tank loads if tank volumes are the same and known) (get
figures from the logbook(s) of this treatment step; comment in case the
total outflow determined in this way differs much from the total amount of
water received by the tank connected to the pumping station at the source
as determined in the third row of this form)
Any problems encountered with water flow in or out any of the
treatment steps? (Y/N) (If yes, explain)
For the water coming out of the chlorination tank(s) describe:
* the total number of free residual chlorine tests executed,
* the maximum free residual chlorine level found (in mg/l),
* the minimum free residual chlorine level found (in mg/l),
* the average free residual chlorine level of all tests (in mg/l),
* the number of tests that had too high values, and
* the number of tests which resulted in too low values.
Comment in case values found differ much from former weeks or if large
differences occurred during the week.
Did any tools, equipment or materials get lost? (Y/N). (If yes, explain)
Are there sufficient materials, chemicals (chlorine, aluminum sulfate,
DPD1 tablets), tools and equipment at the site? (Y/N). (if no, explain)
Did staff work safely? (control especially whether safety rules were
respected during work with chemicals and desludging and cleaning
activities) (Y/N). (If no, explain)
Remarks with respect to quality of work by staff, ideas for
improvement, and any other things found important
4.2.15 Overall Supervisor Piped Water Program
//still to be worked on; it should be assessed whether this function is needed at all///
4.2.16 Program Manager
Tools/materials needed:
In addition to the general tools and materials needed (described in chapter 3) for the piped
drinking water system the manager will need: color comparator together pH and DPD1 tablets, in
some cases an EC meter, in some cases a Del Agua kit, turbidity meter, watch with stopwatch
function, ...........
Number of Program Managers needed:
Emergencies: ///to be worked on////
Non-emergencies: ///one, up to a maximum of 150.000 beneficiaries??///
Tasks (both for emergencies and non-emergencies):
Task
Description
Timing
Execute
general
tasks
Execute all manager’s general tasks
see par.
3.5.4
see par. 3.5.4
Crosschecks
during
visits or
camp
walk
Cross-check fuel use of a few pump stations (info through report of supervisor
pumping and storage) with the administration of those responsible for delivery
of the fuel drums
during
visits to
staff
look at task
descriptions of
the staff visited
Check some of the equipment, tools and materials of staff against what they
should have
Specifications
important for
execution of
the task
other checks can
of course also e
done (the list
given is only a
sample of checks)
test free residual chlorine at a few points and check against what the
responsible staff have registered in their logbooks
Check at a few tapstands: cleanliness, rows of people (or containers) and flow
from taps
Observe cleanliness at the treatment site and a few other sites
Check out some of the repairs done by plumbers (look in logbook of team
leader)
Crosscheck numbers of staff provided by supervisors with numbers of staff on
payrolls (once a month??).
/////work out further/////
Fuel
check
Execute a full check on fuel use at the pump stations. Check fuel use by a few
engines. Count fuel drums at pump stations, check logbooks pump operators
and crosscheck with administration of people delivering the fuel. Check
quality of the fuel.
once a
month
see Box ..., task
description of
pump operators,
logbooks of
pump operators
and administration of those
delivering fuel
Measure
EC
Measure EC value of the raw water
once a
month
should be < 3000
uS/cm
(emergencies)
and < 1400
uS/cm (nonemergencies)
///other tasks still to be worked on////
Form 4.14
Example of piped water program part of the Program Manager’s weekly
report (in addition to general part of Program Manager’s weekly report; see
par3.5.4)
Total number of staff of the Water Treatment
Unit
Total number of staff of the Distribution unit
Total number of staff of the Water Pumping
and Storage Unit
Total number of beneficiaries
Total water production by system (in m3)
Total number of free residual chlorine tests
done by system controllers at the tapstands.
Number of tests with too high values.
Number of tests with too low values.
Comment in case too high or too low values are
found
Total number of free residual chlorine tests
done by water treatment staff
Number of tests with too high values.
Number of tests with too low values.
Comment in case too high or too low values are
found
Average turbidity of water at tapstands (in
NTU)
Maximum turbidity of water at tapstands (in
NTU)
Give comments in case of high values found
Average and maximum turbidities (in NTU)
of:
* Raw water
* The water just before slow sand filtration
* The water just before chlorination
Comment in case of high values found
Total number of tapstands
Total number of pumps + engines in
operation
Total number of storage tanks in system and
their total storage capacity (in m3)
Any problems with people waiting for water?
Describe
Any problems with flow from tapstands or
number of working taps at tapstands?
Describe
Number of collection vessels distributed and
their capacity (in l)
Did staff work safely? (control especially
whether safety rules were respected during work
with engines, chemicals and desludging and
cleaning activities) (Y/N). (If no, explain)
Remarks with regard to use of lubricants and
fuel
Remarks with respect to quality of work by
staff, ideas for improvement, new activities
believed necessary, and any other things
found important
Activities planned for next week
Form 4.15
Example of piped water program part of Program Manager’s monthly
report (in addition to general part of Program Manager’s monthly report; see par.
3.5.4)
This month
Total number of staff of the Water Treatment
Unit
Total number of staff of the Distribution unit
Total number of staff of the Water Pumping and
Storage Unit
Total no. of beneficiaries per camp part (refer to
the map)
Camp part …
Camp part …
Camp part …
Total water production by system (in m3) +
estimation of part which goes to beneficiaries and
parts that go to other uses (e.g. animals, public
health facilities, irrigation, etc.). Is the water enough
for the beneficiaries? Is the water delivered to other
uses enough? Describe if large differences between
different parts of the camp. Refer to the map
Total number of free residual chlorine tests done
by system controllers at the tapstands.
Number of tests with too high values.
Number of tests with too low values.
Comment in case too high or too low values are
found
Total number of free residual chlorine tests done
by water treatment staff.
Number of tests with too high values.
Number of tests with too low values.
Comment in case too high or too low values are
found
Average turbidity of water at tapstands (in NTU)
Maximum turbidity of water at tapstands (in
NTU)
Give comments in case of high values found
Average and maximum turbidities (in NTU) of:
* Raw water
* The water just before slow sand filtration
* The water just before chlorination
Comment in case of high values found
Last month
Total number of tapstands
Ec of raw water (in uS/cm)
Are odor and color of the water at the tapstands
OK? If no, describe
Total number of pumps + engines in operation
Total number of storage tanks in system and
their total storage capacity (in m3)
Form 4.15 (continued)
This month
Any problems with access of beneficiaries to
water points (distances, obstacles, locations)?
Comment, distinguish between camp parts and refer
to map.
Any problems with people waiting for water?
Describe (waiting times, locations). Refer to the
map
Any problems with flow from tapstands or
number of working taps at tapstands? Describe
(severity, locations, relation with longer waiting
times). Refer to map.
Number of collection vessels distributed and
their capacity (in l).
Did staff work safely? (control especially whether
safety rules were respected during work with
engines, chemicals and desludging and cleaning
activities) (Y/N). (If no, explain)
Last month
Statistics
What to do:
1. Register the first time the date the first report was made (= the last day of week 1)
2. Copy graphs from last week.
3. Register on the copied graphs the values of the variables of this week (for the whole camp, and,
if necessary, making separate graphs distinguishing between the different camp parts). Give
explanations/interpretations on a separate paper or on the back of this form.
Last day week 1 = ____________ (fill in date)
Graph 1
Facilities and water production against numbers of beneficiaries
X----X----X = average daily water production during the week; O---O---O = no. of beneficiaries; T----T----T = no. of
functioning tapstands; S---S---S = storage capacity of the tanks; V---V---V = no. of vessels distributed
100
90
80
Numbers of
beneficiaries 70
(in
60
thousands),
50
tapstands,
40
and vessels
distributed (in 30
hundreds)
20
10
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1.000
900
800
700 Amount of
600 water (in m3)
500
400
300
200
100
0
Weeks
Graph 2
Free residual chlorine at tapstands
X-----X----X = total number of free residual chlorine tests done during the week at tapstands; H---H---H = percentage
of the free residual chlorine tests done at the tapstands which had too high values; L---L---L = percentage of the free
residual chlorine tests done at the tapstands which had too low values
200
180
160
140
Number of
120
tests executed
100
80
60
40
20
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Weeks
7
8
9
10
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Percentage
Graph 3
Free residual chlorine at treatment site
X----X----X = total number of free residual chlorine tests executed just after chlorination; H---H---H =
percentage of the free residual chlorine tests done just after chlorination which had too high values;
L---L---L = percentage of the free residual chlorine tests done just after chlorination which had too low values.
200
180
160
Number of
tests executed 140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Weeks
Graph 4
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Percentage
Turbidities
G---G---G = average turbidity raw water; M--M--M = maximum raw water turbidity;
V---V---V = average turbidity of water at tapstands; T---T---T = maximum turbidity of water at tapstands
Raw water
Turbidity
(in NTU)
1.000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
100
90
80
70
Treated water
60 turbidity (in
50 NTU)
40
30
20
10
0
10
20.000
18.000
16.000
Fuel use (in l)
14.000
12.000
10.000
8.000
6.000
4.000
2.000
0
Weeks
Graph 5
Water production against fuel use
W---W---W = total monthly water production; F--F--F = monthly fuel use
100.000
90.000
80.000
Monthly
70.000
water
production 60.000
(in m3)
50.000
40.000
30.000
20.000
10.000
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Weeks
7
8
9
Piped water program part of the monthly report by the Program Manager (continued)
Remarks with regard to use of
lubricants and fuel
Remarks with regard to
administration of materials,
tools and equipment
(operation, contingency, theft,
loss, damage, etc.). Describe
Describe training activities
executed (who were trained,
subjects)
Are objectives being achieved
well enough and in time?
Comment
Remarks with respect to
quality of work by staff, ideas
for improvement, and any
other things found important
Potential problems, threats.
Describe
Main activities planned for
next month
/////For each program discuss progress and problems/constraints of the activities in relation to the
program planning. Include an overview of all the indicators measured during that month,
preferably in graphs against time also containing the results of former months, so that a
comparison with those months is easy. Assess whether the program results are according to the
objectives and time frame planned. If activities have not been carried out or indicators have not
been measured according to the program planning, explain why./////
///Box ...: For the manager: Control of fuel consumption by engines driving pumps
For each pump operator’s logbook:
1. sum up the amounts of fuel used during the week,
2. calculate the amount of water produced by multiplying the number of liters of fuel used with the
normal water production per liter of fuel as determined for the engine used (see Box ...).
3. If also water meter data are present the above calculated water production should be crosschecked with the water meter readings.
4. Get the logbook(s) from the tank(s) to which the considered pump station is pumping, and sum
up the total volume of water that has passed through that/those tank(s) during that week.
If there is any discrepancy, report as such and try to find out what the causes are.
//////
4.2.17 Office Administrator
///still to be worked on: possibly not needed any more, as already sufficiently covered in chapter
3?///
4.2.18 Office Logistician
////still to be worked on; possibly sufficiently covered by chapter 3??
Cross-check fuel use of each pump station with the administration of those responsible for
delivery of the fuel drums////
4.2.19 Evaluating piped water supply programs
///still to be worked on//////
5.
Family pit latrines
The recommended minimum objective of a family pit latrine program is:
To ensure that all camp inhabitants have access to family pit latrines according to the
below specifications.
Specifications for the recommended minimum objective of a pit latrine program:
Situation
Emergency
Non-emergency
Subject
Number of
family pit
latrines
1 latrine in use per 10 families or 50
persons
1 latrine in use per 4 families or 20
persons
Pit dimensions
and distance to
water table
surface area: 0.8 x 1.2 m (square hole in
relatively stable soil without lining), 0,8
m diameter (round hole in relatively
stable soil without lining), up to 1,2 m
diameter or sides of rectangular hole in
case lining is available.
surface area: 0.8 x 1.2 m (square hole
in relatively stable soil without
lining), 0,8 m diameter (round hole in
relatively stable soil without lining),
up to 1,2 m diameter or sides of
rectangular hole in case lining is
depth: at least 3 m (the bottom should be available.
at least 1.5 m above the water table;
depth: preferably 4 m or more (the
may have to be more in case of fissured bottom should be at least 1.5 m above
rocks or other unfavorable conditions).
the water table; may have to be more
in case of fissured rocks or other
unfavorable conditions).
Distance of the
latrines
latrines should be between 15 (not less
because of smell) and 100 m (not more
because of walking distance) from the
dwellings and not be less than 15 m
from any water source (a minimum of
30 m is preferable though; may have to
be more in case of fissured rocks or
other unfavorable conditions)
latrines should be between 15 (not
less because of smell) and 50 m (not
more because of walking distance)
from the dwellings and not be less
than 15 m from any water source (a
minimum of 30 m is preferable
though; may have to be more in case
of fissured rocks or other unfavorable
conditions)
Quality of
construction
see Box 5.1
same
Tools/materials
needed
described per group of staff in the
paragraph
described per group of staff in the
paragraph
Staff
described per group of staff in the
paragraphs of this chapter
described per group of staff in the
paragraphs of this chapter
Width of
corridors
10 to 20 m
same
Chapter 5 : Family pit latrines
p. 108
Box 5.1 : technical specifications for a simple family pit latrine
A family pit latrine in the most common form as found in many camps consists of:
 A hole in the ground (the pit) dug by the household members themselves (the hole should be just wide
enough to enable an adult to stand in it and dig the pit deeper, and small enough to allow for a reasonable
size and not too heavy slab with sufficient strength).
 If the ground is unstable: a lining of bricks, mud stones, corrugated iron, old oil drums, concrete rings,
etc. partly or completely down the pit (materials are usually provided by the program after the pit has been
completed according to the prescribed dimensions which is controlled by sanitation workers). A lining
should preferably be avoided as this makes the latrine much more expensive (therefore if you can choose
between a smaller hole without lining and a larger hole with lining it is preferable to choose for the first
option).
 A strong platform covering the hole (the slab), e.g. of concrete (easy to clean and not soaking up liquids
that may feed pathogens), preferably with a key formed drop hole and raised foot rests. If the soil is unstable
and no financial means are available for a lining the platform should have a large overlap (at least 50 cm)
with the ground. In this case reinforced concrete is a better option than the dome-shaped unreinforced
concrete platforms. The dome-shaped platforms have a limited diameter and therefore have little overlap
with the ground. They will thus need a lining in the pit for most soils (for design see Davis and Lamberts
1995 p. 167 - 169). In case of using reinforced slabs it is best to make them in different parts, otherwise they
will be too heavy to carry. In many camps wood is used (light in weight, thus less danger for collapse of the
underground and easier to transport, cheap, and easy to make, but less hygienic and less durable than
concrete). Wooden slabs should preferably be treated with some kind of preservative (even old motor oil
can be used). Covering the wooden slab with plastic or a layer of mortar may help to make the slab more
hygienic. In camps households are usually given the slab after they have finished the hole according to the
prescriptions. A slab should always be raised 15 cm or more above ground level (put earth from the hole on
the ground around the hole and compact it). This is to prevent runoff rainwater flowing into the pit.
 The superstructure. In its simplest form it may consist of branches and leaves or mud walls, without a
roof. A roof is often not preferred as it makes the structure more expensive and allows the inside to remain
more humid and with that more suitable for insects and pathogens (while the rain falling directly onto the
platform is negligible; it will by no means fill up the pit). Without a roof the platform usually dries up
quickly, killing (some of the) insects and pathogens. Important is to encourage people to cover the hole in
the slab with a lid to avoid insect breeding in the pit as much as possible. Proper cleaning and covering the
pit contents with 100 mm of soil every 2-3 days will also help to reduce fly breeding and smells. VIP
latrines are often not suitable: they are expensive and need to be really well constructed to ensure the
required dark inside of the structure (which is in most cases not well done). The entrance into the
superstructure should be at the downstream side of the latrine if there is any slope.
 An earth bund around the superstructure. The bund should be 20 to 30 cm high and at least 50 cm wide
to prevent runoff water to enter directly or through the underground into the pit. Additionally a runoff
diversion channel can be dug at some distance from the latrine (especially on sloping grounds).
 Construction of latrines in wide corridors. If the camp is situated on sloping grounds the latrines should
be constructed in wide corridors (20 m or more) running downhill between the huts. The reason is that if,
despite all the precautions, latrines should overflow due to excessive runoff entering the pits, this will not
affect the people in their homes as the effluents will run down the corridors, and not into the huts. The
corridors also function as firebreaks and are often used as pathways (and are thus also useful on non-sloping
grounds).
Chapter 5 : Family pit latrines
p. 109
Entrance
Simple
superstructure of
twigs and leaves or
other local material
Reinforced
concrete slab
Earth from pit
0.80 m
3-4m
groundlevel
Drop hole (key shape)
Pit
Reinforced concrete
slab
1,5 m
Entrance
Downhill
Earth from pit
0,8 m
Drain
8 mm
0,5 m
Reinforced concrete slab
6 mm
1,70 m
Chapter 5 : Family pit latrines
p. 110
Figure 5.1
An example of a simple family pit latrine
Advantages of a simple family pit latrine:
 Cheaper than a VIP latrine so more people can be facilitated in making their own
latrine with the same budget.
 People can maintain the latrine themselves as most materials can be locally found
(with exception of the slab that will however be provided to them and will be so
strong that it will last at least 20 to 30 years)
 Easily reconstructed when the pit is full and the concrete slab can then be re-used.
Disadvantages of a simple family pit latrine:

More danger for fly infestation as no VIP principle is used. To prevent this as
much as possible a strong concrete lid should be provided with the slab and
attached firmly to it with an iron chain in order to make it possible to close the hole
and therewith reduce fly problems. It should be remarked that the VIP concept only
really functions if a proper screen is attached on top of the vent-pipe. This is usually
done during construction, but it is believed that such screens disintegrate over the
years and are in most cases not replaced when they break. Another question with
regard to the VIP concept is whether the inside of the superstructure is dark enough
to prevent that flies come out of the squatting hole instead of flying into the vent-pipe
(often this is not the case, especially if the beneficiaries make their own
superstructures).

The hole must be dug exactly accordingly to the prescribed dimensions: often
people tend to dig it wider which increases the danger of collapse. This requires
careful supervision.
Organisation needed for the production of the reinforced concrete slab:
Set up a temporary workshop in the community with one skilled person paid by the
program to instruct the community members. The community members who want to
make a latrine should start making the slab before digging the pit, so that the slab is
ready and its concrete cured sufficiently by the time the pit is ready. Before they are
allowed to take the slab home it should be controlled that indeed they have finalized
digging the pit and that it has the right dimension. The instructor (a professional mason
employed by the district authorities and receiving a small allowance from PRDO)
explains to the people how to make the slabs and he controls that the community
members do it right. It is proposed to have a professional because otherwise
community members who are not very experienced and trained will most probably tend
to put too much water in the concrete mix, don’t vibrate the fresh concrete enough, use
too little cement, and/or let the concrete cure without keeping it wet.
Other programs
Field administrator
of the pit latrine program
Manager of family pit latrine program
Supervisor sanitation workers
Office administrator
Office logisticien
Supervisor production
Sanitation teams:
Slab and lid producers
team leaders
lining producers
Chapter
5
:
Family
pit
latrines
sanitation workers
p. 111
Figure 5.2
Organogram of the family pit latrine program described in this paragraph
Sanitation teams are responsible for the proper construction by the people of latrines in their
area, lending out tools for drainage, and other tasks (see task description of the sanitation
workers and their team leaders). The teams usually each have their own area. The sanitation
workers usually work alone in their part of that area while sometimes they assist each other.
They often discuss things between the members of the team to exchange information and get
feedback on the specific problems they have met. The team leaders of the teams work together.
In smaller programs they can also fulfil the tasks of the supervisor together.
The rest of this paragraph gives an example of the tasks that should be executed by the involved
actors in the family pit latrine program presented in the organogram.
Chapter 5 : Family pit latrines
p. 112
5.1.1 Sanitation workers
Sanitation workers ensure that the camp inhabitants build latrines in the right way and in the
right place, old latrines are closed in the right way, etc. They often also fulfil a broader
function, being involved in marking off and indicating to new arrivals the areas for construction
of huts, indicating where corridors should be, and giving feed-back to the program about new
arrivals and specific camp planning problems. Those who are good in counting may be
involved in population censuses.
Tools/materials needed per sanitation worker:
Sanitation workers can obtain from the field store the materials they need, such as shovels,
picks, hoes, large hammers, wood saws, etc (see below). The small poles and possibly rope or
other materials needed for marking off areas, fencing etc. are provided by the production unit of
the program.
Tools needed for the program
one shovel per ... camp inhabitants
one pick per .... camp inhabitants
one ho per .... camp inhabitants
one large hammer per ... camp inhabitants
one saw per .... camp inhabitants
(these tools should be available to both beneficiaries and sanitation workers from the field store,
on top of the tools already available with tapstand caretakers, chefs de corridors etc. In case
tools are not enough during certain busy periods, sanitation workers have a higher priority than
the beneficiaries)
Number of sanitation workers needed:
Emergencies: one per .....
Non-emergencies: one per 1000 to 2000 persons.
Box 5.2 : Administrative system for incentives in family pit latrine programs
Many family pit latrine programs give some kind of incentive to people who construct their
own latrine after they have finished it. This is to encourage people in a positive way. Often the
incentive has a relation to the latrines, e.g. some soap which also stimulates and enables people
to improve their hygiene behavior. To ensure a proper system and prevent corruption with it
(e.g. staff selling the incentives) the following system can be used:
Let each sanitation worker be responsible for the latrines in a certain area: a sanitation worker
can only provide the incentive notes for the finished latrines in his own area. On the note the
name of the sanitation worker and the area should be printed. If in the administration it is seen
that more incentive notes are received than the number of latrines produced in the area of a
sanitation worker, it is clear that the responsible sanitation worker is selling or giving away the
notes. The comparison between numbers of latrines and incentive notes should be done every
month. Appropriate action should be taken against the sanitation workers performing
corruptive behavior.
The same system can be used with the notes for the slabs as also slabs have a value.
Chapter 5 : Family pit latrines
p. 113
Tasks (emergencies and non-emergencies):
Task
Description
Timing
Siting of huts
and latrines
Place pickets at the places where new arrivals can build
their latrines and their huts and lead the new arrivals to
these places (discuss with them whether they prefer to stay
in a certain part of the camp, e.g. where the people from
their own area have settled and try to make this possible).
Once the people have build the structures gather the
pickets to use them at other sites (explain to the people on
beforehand that they have to give back the pickets
afterwards).
Every time
when new
latrine or hut
constructions
are needed
Ensure right
dimensions of
the pits
Control and direct people to ensure that the holes they dig
have the right dimensions (especially width and length are
important: the slab must have enough overlap with the
ground; therefore it is important to be on-site whenever
people start digging and come back a few times afterwards
to control whether they have not enlarged the hole). If
people have made a too large hole it should be rejected
and they should not be given a slab.
Explain to
people before
they start digging and visit
them regularly
when they are
digging
Inform people
about digging
tools
Inform people who need tools for digging latrine holes or
improving drainage around their huts where and how they
can obtain these. Usually tools can be borrowed from
tapstand caretakers, chef de corridors etc. but if they do
not have sufficient tools people should be informed that
they can also go to the field store and borrow tools from
there.
Give a note for
the slab
If people are ready with digging the hole it should be
controlled once again whether it has the right dimensions.
If everything is OK give them a note with which they can
go to the production or storage site to obtain a slab.
Control the
quality of the
structure
Continue to advise people when they are finalizing the
latrine, e.g. about the necessity of raising the slab, the
earth bank and interception drain etc. Control whether
people do a good job. If not, they should be strongly
advised to do it better (if the program gives an incentive to
the people after finalizing the latrine, e.g. a piece of soap,
a properly finished latrine should be put as a condition for
receiving the incentive).
Provide incentives to those
who have
properly finished
their latrine
Give people who have properly finished their latrine a
note with which they can obtain the incentive from the
field store.
Visit the
latrines shortly
after they have
been finalized
See Box 5.2
Give instructions
about proper
operation and
maintenance
Explain people who have completed their latrine about
proper operation and maintenance:
Explain just
after people
have finalized
their latrine and
whenever
believed
necessary
(control latrines
when passing
See paragraph
3.3.4.1 (informal
group
discussions)

Keep the latrine clean. Cover the pit contents with 100
mm of soil every 2 to 3 days to reduce fly breeding
and smells.

When the pit is full to within 150 mm of the surface,
Chapter 5 : Family pit latrines
p. 114
Specifications
important for
execution of
the task
See Box 5.1 and
the specifications of the
recommended
minimum
objective
See Box 5.1 and
the specifications of the
recommended
minimum
objective
dig another pit and fill the old pit with soil. The old
slab and possibly parts of the superstructure can be
used for the new latrine. Digging tools can be
borrowed (ask the sanitation worker or any
representative of the beneficiaries who is entitled to
lending out tools)

If the latrine is owned by several families together
they should agree on beforehand on a rotation scheme
for the above operation and maintenance tasks.
Chapter 5 : Family pit latrines
p. 115
by and talk
informally to
people about it
as often as
possible)
6.
Vector control
6.1Introduction.
Definition of a Vector
A vector is an insect or other animal that can transmit infection directly or indirectly
from one person to another, or from an infected animal to a person.
The most effective method of controlling vectors in the longer term is prevention by improved
general hygiene. This includes improved toilet facilities, garbage disposal, drainage, burial of
the dead, food storage and handling practices, improved personal hygiene through provision of
soap, hygiene education, and sufficient supply of clean water. However, sometimes these
methods may need to be supplemented by specific vector control programs to prevent disease
outbreaks. In these specific programs the chemical control measures should only be considered
as a supplement to preventive measures or as an emergency solution as long as preventive
measures are not yet executed or effective. They should be executed for as limited a period as
possible. To determine which program is most suited to control the vector problem a large
number of factors should be taken into account which all vary according to the circumstances.
This can therefore best be done by an expert. Some general rules are:
control, both through improved hygiene and other measures, should aim to make the focus area
unfavorable to the development and survival of vectors;
control of vectors is generally more effective if it focuses on vector forms that have not yet
attained sexual maturity (eggs, larvae, etc.);
eradication of vectors is frequently unattainable: the goal should be to maintain a vector population beneath a fixed threshold beyond which the risk of epidemic would be too great.
This chapter describes the operational activities for 5 types of vector control programs:
residual spraying programs
larviciding programs
space spraying programs
bednet programs
rodent control programs
Terminology
Residual spraying: spraying with insecticides which retain their killing power for some time
after application on a surface upon which the vector is known to rest long
enough to pick up a lethal dose.
Larviciding:
treatment of known breeding sites that are not sources of drinking water
with insecticide or light oil.
Space spraying:
outdoor spraying with insecticides in the air; this can be done from the
ground or from the air (by plane).
Bed-nets:
mosquito nets, often impregnated with an insecticide.
Rodents:
rats and mice.
Chapter 6 : Vector control
p. 115
Table 6.1 : Vectors of public health importance in camps
Vector
Potential
disease
transmission
Methods to control the vector
Mosquitoes
malaria
improve environmental hygiene in general
elephantiasis
hygiene education
dengue
reduce/destruct breeding sites/eliminate stagnant water (especially
the smallest ones)
yellow fever
put lids at latrine holes
Japanese encephalitis
cover water containers
cover stagnant water pools
Methods to
control the
diseases
caused by the
vector
medical
curative
treatments
preventive
malaria drugs
vaccination
against yellow
fever and
encephalitis
put polystyrene pellets to float on the surface of the water in
water-filled latrine pits and other small water bodies (suffocates
existing larvae and prevents egg laying by adult mosquitoes)
put screening at doors, windows etc.
remove vegetation from standing surface water edges (or let the
vegetation be very thick, e.g. in case of a densely overgrown
swamp; choice for removal or leaving vegetation depends on type
of mosquito and circumstances)
Make edges of ponds deeper than 1 m steep and straight
bednets or other netting measures
larviciding
indoor residual spraying
space spraying
repellents
Body
lice
louse-borne
typhus
reduce overcrowding
Head
lice
considerable
discomfort
and malaise
hygiene education
hygiene education
louse-borne
bednets
relapsing fever
treating contaminated clothes by steaming, boiling or dry heating
trench fever
distribution of clean clothes (esp. underwear)
other arboviral
insecticide treatment of clothes and bedding (treat again after 1
infections
week)
skin irritations
insecticidal dusting of individuals, especially new arrivals, school
children (treat periodically), feverish persons, and corpses
allergic
reactions
Tsetseflies
sleeping
sickness (in
medical
curative
treatments
use of ‘nit’ combs
smearing the head with certain oils
shaving
insecticide spraying on vegetation
selective destruction of vegetation
Chapter 6 : Vector control
p. 116
medical
curative
treatment (can
humans)
application of natural baits, e.g. cows impregnated with insecticide
trypanosomias
is (in animals)
application of artificial baits such as traps and screens impregnated
with insecticide
Chapter 6 : Vector control
p. 117
be risky
though)
Table 6.1 : Vectors of public health importance in camps (continued)
Vector
Potential
disease
transmission
Methods to control the vector
Flies
(nonbiting)
diarheal
diseases
(shigella,
salmonella,
dysentery)
provide hygiene education and improve hygiene in general
eye diseases
(trachoma)
put lids on latrine holes
implement good sanitary facilities (esp. toilets and garbage
disposal) at households, markets and public buildings
clean dwellings, latrines and surroundings
clean/dispose spilled food and other garbage safely
dispose waste water safely
fly traps with poisoned baits (take care that people can not touch
or eat the bait!)
fly screening
larviciding in latrine pits and garbage pits (only during short
periods to avoid building up of resistance and affect the
decomposition process of faces, and only in combination with
sanitation measures)
weekly space spraying (esp. large garbage areas near populated
places; e.g. at markets, spray after closing time)
residual spraying (usually not recommended because of danger for
fast building up of resistance, but is often used mainly for malaria
control and then usually also reduces flies)
Methods to
control the
diseases
caused by the
vector
medical
curative
treatments
oral
rehydration (for
diarrhoeal
diseases)
hygiene
education
water for
regular face
washing
(control of eye
diseases)
water and soap
for hand
washing
(control of
diarrhoeal
diseases)
biological larviciding (with Bacillus thuringiensis, strain H-1;
larvae which eat this bacillus are killed by the toxin it releases
with a long residual effect). In camps where fecal matter rapidly
accumulates in latrine pits it is only partly effective though
Bedbugs nuisance
and
because of
Reduvii biting by night
d bugs
hepatitis B
improvement in housing (well-maintained brick walls and
corrugated iron roofs)
bednets (esp. effective against reduviid bugs)
medical
curative
treatments
residual spraying
chagas disease
Blackflies
river blindness
Insecticidal control of the blackfly larvae in the ‘white water’
sections of fast flowing rivers
repellents
Sandflie
s
leishmaniasis
sandfly fever
destruction of rodent colonies, thereby eliminating the flies’
breeding and resting sites
siting of camp at least 1 km from Acacia-Balanites woodland (if in
Kala-azar endemic areas in Sudan and Ethiopia)
medical
curative
treatment
medical
curative
treatments
information campaign (don’t go in Acacia-Balanites woodlands at
dusk or night)
Ticks
relapsing fever dipping animal in appropriate insecticide
spotted fever
repellents
Chapter 6 : Vector control
p. 118
medical
curative
treatments
residual spraying in houses (e.g. when spraying against malaria)
Chapter 6 : Vector control
p. 119
Table 6.1 : Vectors of public health importance in camps (continued)
Vector
Potential
disease
transmission
Methods to control the vector
Mites
scabies
treatment of body with special emulsion, solution or cream to kill
the mites that cause scabies
scrub typhus
change clothes and blankets
Methods to
control the
diseases
caused by the
vector
medical
curative
treatment
hygiene education
good and regular washing of body, clothes, blankets etc. with
sufficient water and soap
insecticide spraying of soil and vegetation in areas with scrub
typhus followed by destroying the rodent population that hosts the
mites.
Fleas
plague (from
infected rats)
flea-borne
typhus
hygiene education
clean shelters and surroundings
medical
curative
treatments
Use of insecticidal dusts in rat runs, burrows and around dwellings
followed by rodent control
Airing bedding
insecticidal dusting/powdering of bedding, clothes and furniture
wearing shoes (against jigger fleas that settle on feet)
removing jigger fleas with a sterilized needle
Rats
rat bite fever
lassa fever
leptospirosis
salmonellosis
toxoplasmosis
the diseases
caused by
fleas, mites
and ticks,
hosted by rats
Rodent control (if diseases occur caused by insects hosted by rats
first control measures must be executed against these insects: the
vector must be controlled before controlling the rodent) through:
proper garbage disposal and other sanitary measures
rodent trapping (if not well done, can work counter-effective)
rodent proofing of food stores, stores for medical supplies and
buildings in general
applying rodenticides (oral poisons for rats and mice); can be
dangerous in camps; if done it must be accompanied by a thorough
and effective information campaign
protection of buildings by cats and dogs (only effective when no
rodent population present yet in the buildings)
clean-up campaign after a trapping or poisoning campaign
Chapter 6 : Vector control
p. 120
medical
curative
treatments
6.2Residual spraying programs.
As spraying programs are usually not executed in emergencies, this paragraph focuses on
residual spraying programs in non-emergency situations.
The recommended minimum objective of a residual spraying program is:
To ensure that, in accordance with the below specifications, the concerned vector
populations are in a safe way reduced to and/or maintained at low enough thresholds to
keep the diseases transmitted by them within acceptable levels.
Specifications for the recommended minimum objective of a residual spraying program:
Situation
Non-emergency
Subject
Suitable insecticides:
Deltamethrin
Permethrin
Lambda-cyhalothrin
Pirimiphos-methyl
Malathion
Fenitrothion
DDT and HCH (BHC)
Bendiocarb and propoxur
Timing
Application and coverage
Safety
Acceptable incidence
levels of diseases
transmitted by vectors
Acceptable thresholds for
vector populations
Numbers of staff
Equipment
Dose: in g of
active ingredient
per m2
0.05
Frequency of treatment
at least once a year, but every 2 to 3 months is the
normal standard (persistence = 4-6 months)
0.5
at least once a year, but every 2 to 3 months is the
normal standard (persistence = 4-6 months)
0.025-0.03
at least once a year, but every 2 to 3 months is the
normal standard (persistence = 4-6 months)
1-2
every 1 to 2 months? (persistence = 2-3 months)
2
every 1 to 2 months? (persistence = 2-3 months)
1-2
every 2 to 3 months? (persistence = 3-4 months)
?
?
?
?
In case of seasonal transmission: spray before start of transmission period.
In case of continuous transmission: spray periodically, based on the
required frequency of treatment..
Obtain uniform surface coverage, at a rate of 40 ml of solution per m2
See Box
See Chapter 3
See Chapter ... and Appendix ...
See the respective paragraphs in this chapter.
Most suitable for internal residual spraying are hand-operated,
continuously pumped or pre-pressurized knapsack sprayers. They should
be cleaned daily and regularly serviced, with particular attention given to
preventing and repairing leaks. Outdoor treatments can also be done with
power-operated sprayers.
Chapter 6 : Vector control
p. 121
Box 6.1 : Safety rules for residual spraying programs
Read insect labels. They should give: the identity of the product, its effectiveness against pests,
safe handling procedures, and treatment in case of poisoning
Wash and destroy all empty insecticide containers before burial
Insecticides in the ‘Extremely’ and ‘Highly Hazardous’ WHO classification should not be used
Secure insecticide containers properly when transporting in vehicles and ensure that the vehicle is
well ventilated
Inspect containers for damage after transport and check the vehicle is not contaminated
Never transport or store insecticides and food together
Never transfer insecticides to unmarked containers
Provide separate working clothes for those who handle pesticides and splashproof clothing for
those handling concentrate.
Provide soap, detergents and water for washing after concentrates are mixed and for washing
before eating and at the end of the work (body and work clothes)
Soak up liquids with absorbent material (e.g. sand); place material and swept solid formulations
in plastic bags and bury
Keep records of: insecticides received, used, and in store; places treated; and containers buried
Empty and clean spraying equipment after use and ensure unused insecticide is returned to store.
Ensure wastewater from washing associated with insecticide is not disposed of near water
supplies. Use an isolated soakaway.
Keep children away from insecticides, application equipment and stores
Avoid contaminating food and drinking water. Do not spray eating or cooking areas, animals, or
the surfaces they might lick
Workers should work only 4 to 5 hours a day
Sprayers must wear full protective clothing covering their entire body: pair of rubber gloves (+ 1
spare pair), rubber boots, comfortable long-sleeved cotton overall (must have 1 spare one), broad
rimmed hat (+ 1 spare one), pair of plastic safety glasses, felt mask (+ 1 spare)
Sprayers must be properly trained, be aware of the dangers, and supervised
Equipment must be kept in good condition
Sprayers must use the minimum pressure necessary to deliver a good spray
Insecticide mixers must have a plastic apron, rubber gloves and rubber boots
All staff supervising sprayers and other staff handling pesticides must be able to quickly diagnose
a case of poisoning and take proper action. A stock of injectable atropine must be kept on hand
for organophosphate poisoning cases (see further Box 6.3).
Chapter 6 : Vector control
p. 122
A common organizational set-up for a residual spraying program, taken in this paragraph as
an example, is presented in the organogram below:
Other programmes
Field administrator
Manager of water and sanitation programme
Supervisor vector control programme
Team leader spraying team
Sprayers
Figure 6.1
paragraph
Other spraying teams
Office administrator
Office logisticien
Supervisors of other programmes
Insecticide mixers
Spraying solution carriers
Organogram of the residual spraying program described in this
The rest of this paragraph gives an example of the tasks of the involved actors in the residual
spraying program presented in the above organogram.
Chapter 6 : Vector control
p. 123
6.2.1 Sprayers
Tools/materials needed per sprayer:
1 hand compression sprayer, soap, 2 pairs of rubber gloves, 1 pair of rubber boots, 2 comfortable long-sleeved cotton overalls, 2 broad rimmed hats, 1 pair of plastic safety glasses, 2
/felt?/ masks. The sprayers are responsible for their spraying equipment and in principle have
to carry out all checks, repairs and calibrations themselves.
Number of sprayers needed:
A very general and theoretical rule of thumb is one sprayer per 100.000 m2 surface to be
sprayed. This equals 2000 dwellings of 50 m2 (probably a reasonable average for a dwelling
in a camp, although per camp this will need to be checked). This is probably too much though
for most circumstances. The number of sprayers needed depends on:
* The actual surface one sprayer can effectively spray per day. This depends on factors as the
types and sizes of the facilities to be sprayed, logistical organization and so on.
* The frequency of spraying needed (depends on the chemicals used and the type of material
sprayed on).
Therefore large differences may exist between different camps in the numbers of sprayers
needed. See further Box 6.6.
//// here: figure of sprayer with full equipment/////
Chapter 6 : Vector control
p. 124
Tasks:
Task
Description
Timing
Specification
s important
for execution of the
task
Spray the
facilities
Spray according to the requirements:
Every day
See Box 6.4
1. Compare the time used for spraying a facility regularly with the
required spraying time for that facility. If the difference is large
adjust the spraying speed, unless there is another reason for the
difference (e.g. if the facility is much larger or smaller than the
one for which the spraying time was determined).
2. If not sure whether the surfaces of the facility should be
completely or only partly sprayed (e.g. in toilets spraying is
often only needed to about 30 cm above the platform) check
with the team leader first.
3. Make sure to keep a distance of 45 cm from the surface
(measure regularly, for instance with a stick cut at 45 cm length)
and bend through the knees to assure keeping the spraying
nozzle horizontal.
Clean
clothes
Clean the overall and other working clothes by washing with water
and soap
At least once a
week
Check
discharge
rate
Check the discharge rate of the pump. In case of problems clean the
equipment thoroughly, check for leaks and assess whether calibration is
needed. If so, repair/calibrate (get tools from the store, ask others to help
you if needed).
At least
once a week
and each
time when
obstruction
is suspected
See Boxes 6.2
and 6.4
Clean
equipmen
t
Clean the equipment. In case of problems repair (get tools from the store;
ask team leader, other sprayers, mechanic etc. for help if needed).
At the end of
each day
See Box 6.2
Control
spraying
pressure
Control whether the spraying pressure is correct. Decreasing
pressure causes a decrease in flow, a wider angle of spray and an
increase in the size of the droplets.
Control
regularly
during the
day.
See Boxes 6.2
and 6.4
If the pressure is too low, increase it by pumping.
Ensure
safety of
goods,
people
and
animals
during
spraying
If a leak or calibration problem is suspected discuss with the team
leader and change for another sprayer for the time being and
repair/calibrate the first one at the end of the day.
Repair at the
end of the
day if
needed
Check whether items which might be harmed (food, cooking
utensils, animals etc.) have been removed or well covered
with plastic each time before spraying starts.
Every time
before starting
to spray
somewhere
To avoid loosing time it is good to tell the people the day
before where spraying will be done the next day (the team
leader can also ask the hygiene promoters to inform the
people).
Don’t start spraying until things are safe. In case of problems
warn the team leader and continue with the next facility (and
return back only when the problems are solved).
Chapter 6 : Vector control
p. 125
See Box 6.1
Chapter 6 : Vector control
p. 126
Tasks (continued):
Task
Description
Timing
Specification
s important
for execution of the
task
Ensure
safety for
the
beneficiar
ies after
spraying
Control that people do not enter just sprayed facilities for at
least half an hour after spraying (keep an eye on the facilities
just sprayed when already busy with the next facility).
Warn people
on beforehand
See Box 6.1
Warn people on beforehand and again when you see that they
want to enter a just sprayed facility too early (can also be
done by the insecticide carriers if part of the team or by the
team leader or hygiene promoters).
Control each
time after
spraying
somewhere
If it is observed that people do not respect this it should be
discussed with the team leader and the supervisor of the
program to find a way to prevent people from endangering
themselves with this behavior (e.g. by developing better
information campaigns about the subject or putting pressure
on people through local leaders).
Count
facilities
sprayed
and tanks
emptied
Report
problems
Each sprayer should count the numbers of facilities he has
sprayed and the number of spraying tanks emptied per type of
facility sprayed.
Report all problems encountered to the team leader.
Chapter 6 : Vector control
p. 127
Every day
Whenever
problems
occur
6.2.2 Spraying solution carriers
Tools/materials needed per carrier:
///??2 pairs of rubber gloves, 1 pair of rubber boots, 2 comfortable long-sleeved cotton
overalls??//
Number of carriers needed:
One to .... per team of four sprayers and one team leader. Depends on use of spraying solution
and distances to be covered.
Tasks:
Task
Description
Timing
Carry
spraying
solution
Carry spraying solution from the site where mixing is done
to the site where the sprayers are spraying
Every time
when spraying
solution is
needed
somewhere.
Clean clothes
Clean the overall and other working clothes by washing with
water and soap
At least once a
week.
Help to ensure
safety of
goods, people
and animals
during
spraying
Help the sprayers to check whether items which might be
harmed (food, cooking utensils, animals etc.) have been
removed or well covered with plastic each time before
spraying starts and tell the people in advance where spraying
will be done so that they can start on this in time. Only help
if you don’t need to carry out other tasks.
Before
sprayers
start to
spray.
Help to ensure
safety for the
beneficiaries
after spraying
Help the sprayers to control that people do not enter just
sprayed facilities for at least half an hour after spraying
(keep an eye on the facilities which are just sprayed). Warn
people on beforehand and again when you see that they want
to enter a just sprayed facility too early. If it is observed that
people do not respect this inform the team leader. Only help
if you don’t need to carry out other tasks.
Warn people
on
beforehand.
Control each
time after
spraying has
been
completed
somewhere.
Report
problems
Report all problems encountered to the team leader.
Whenever
problems
occur.
Chapter 6 : Vector control
p. 128
Specifications
important for
execution of
the task
6.2.3 Team leader of a spraying team
Tools/materials needed per sprayer:
Report forms, pen, notebook, soap, 2 pairs of rubber gloves, 1 pair of rubber boots, 2
comfortable long-sleeved cotton overalls, 2 broad rimmed hats, 1 pair plastic safety glasses, 2
/felt/ masks.
Number of team leaders needed: one per 4 sprayers.
Tasks:
Task
Description
Timing
Ensure that
sprayers clean
their working
clothes
Control that the sprayers clean their overalls at least once a
week1.
Control
every
week
Control
whether
sprayers wear
protective
clothing
Control whether the sprayers wear fully protective clothing
during spraying. Don’t allow them to work without!
Every day
Control the
quality of
spraying
Make sure the sprayers spray according to the requirements.
Check their:
Control
several
times a
day
See the task
description of
the sprayers
and Box 6.4
At the end
of each
day
See Boxes 6.2 and
6.4
* spraying technique: nozzle 45 cm from surface, bending
through knees to keep nozzle horizontal;
Specifications
important for
execution of
the task
* spraying speed: should be such that the spraying time
needed for the facility worked on is not much lower or
higher than the required spraying time for that facility
(unless there is a good reason for it, e.g. when the facility
is much bigger or smaller than the facility for which the
required spraying time was determined).
Correct if necessary.
Make sure
sprayers clean
their equipment
and check its
functioning
Ensure that sprayers clean their equipment and control its
proper functioning (they are responsible for their own
equipment, for the repairs and the calibration!). Check, with
a few of the sprayers whether and how they:
control the discharge rate at the beginning of the day;
control spraying pressure during the day;
clean their equipment and control it for leaks at the end of
the day.
Check mixing
of chemicals
1
//??Observe in the spraying tanks (open them to have a look)
whether the insecticide is well mixed in the water??//. If not,
warn the insecticide mixer that he should improve his
mixing.
Another option is to organize people to wash the clothes of spraying staff.
Chapter 6 : Vector control
p. 129
Every day
check at
least two
tanks
Tasks (continued):
Task
Description
Timing
Specifications
important for
execution of
the task
Let sprayers
change
equipment when
needed
If a sprayer has observed or suspects a problem with his
equipment allow him to change for another one (send him with
a note for the field administrator to the store) and assess
together at the end of the day what the problem is. Repair or
calibrate the equipment. Hand the equipment over to the
program manager if it can not be repaired/calibrated on site.
Wheneve
r needed
For how to
repair or
calibrate the
handpumps see
Box 6.2
Control washing
of hands
Control that sprayers and solution carriers wash their hands
with water and soap each time after mixing chemicals, after
finishing the work and before eating anything.
Control
several
times a
day
Control whether
sprayers ensure
safety during
spraying
Control when a sprayer is spraying a facility whether all items
that might be harmed have been covered or removed. If not,
explain to the sprayer that he must check this and not start
spraying until this is in order. Check a next time whether he has
understood.
Control
several
times a
day
Control whether
sprayers ensure
safety for the
beneficiaries
after spraying
Observe whether people stay out of their huts for at least half
an hour after spraying and whether the sprayers are explaining
the need for this to the people. If not make the sprayers aware
that it is important to explain this to the people and check
whether people respect it. If the problem is with the people,
discuss with them. If it seems to be a structural problem discuss
with the supervisor and program manager and develop a
strategy to prevent this behavior (e.g. ask local leaders to
discuss it with the people, organize better information
campaigns).
Control
several
times a
day
Register
numbers of
facilities sprayed
Count the numbers of facilities sprayed and compare at the end
of the day with the countings of the sprayers. Control whether
the number of facilities sprayed was sufficient1 . Also ask the
sprayers for the numbers of spraying tanks emptied (in case of
doubt double check with the insecticide mixer).
During
the day.
Ensure limited
spraying hours
Make sure that the sprayers are not spraying for more than 4 to
5 hours per day. Let them take a rest, well away from the just
sprayed facilities for more than one hour half way the day.
Every
day
Recognize and
treat poison
symptoms in
time
Observe the sprayers for symptoms of poisoning. If
organophosphate poisoning is suspected take the affected
person immediately to the health post where injectable atropine
is available and ask the health staff to take over (stand on it that
the person is helped immediately).
Continuously
see Box 6.3
for a
description of
the symptoms
of poisoning
Control whether
spraying kills the
vector targeted
Observe whether spraying kills the vectors targeted: observe in
facilities just sprayed as well as in facilities sprayed a few days
earlier, ask people how long it takes until the vectors come
back.
Every
day
See Appendix 8
1
Compare
at the end
of the day
There should be a figure for how many facilities a sprayer must spray per day. If this has not been
done discuss with the supervisor and program manager and make a plan together on how to
determine this figure and advise them on this matter (see also Boxes 6.4 and 6.6).
Chapter 6 : Vector control
p. 130
Make daily
reports
Register all findings in the daily report.
Every
day
Report problems
Report immediately to the supervisor and/or manager in case of
serious problems.
Wheneve
r serious
problems
arise
Chapter 6 : Vector control
p. 131
See Form 6.1
Box 6.2 : Maintenance of spraying equipment
How to control for leaks
//?pump a little bit with finger closing off the nozzle and listen for sizzing sound ?//
How to clean a hand operated sprayer
Make sure that during cleaning the equipment the wastewater is drained well away from any water source
How to check for need of calibration
How to calibrate a hand operated sprayer
Chapter 6 : Vector control
p. 132
Box 6.3 : Pesticide poisoning and first aid
All persons in charge of supervising workers handling pesticides must be able to diagnose a case
of poisoning and take appropriate action
Organophosphates
Pirimiphos-methyl, Malathion and Fenitrothion are organophosphates.
Poisoning or overexposure produces symptoms quickly - typically 1/2 hour to 1 hour later. The
symptoms can appear somewhat later (2 to 3 hours) if the chemical entered the body through the
skin.
The first symptoms of poisoning are nausea, headache, fatigue, and weakness, accompanied by
mental and muscular disorders. Headache, muscle weakness, and fatigue increase progressively,
followed by vomiting, abdominal cramps with diarrhea, heavy sweating, and salivation. In
serious cases, paralysis and breathing problems can be observed, followed by convulsions and a
loss of consciousness, leading to coma, respiratory arrest, and death.
Pyrethroids
Deltamethrin, Permethrin and Lambda-cyhalothrin are pyrethroids.
Pyrethroids have very weak toxicity if taken up through the stomach or skin. Only oral doses in
excess of 15 g are poisonous to humans. However, pyrethroids can provoke dermatitis and if
inhaled they can be dangerous. No case of pyrethroid poisoning has however been reported in
humans.
First aid
Everything must be done to maintain normal breathing in a poisoned person: place in a wellaired place and make breathing easy by moving the head slightly backward (to free the lung
ways).
In case of poison contact with the eyes flush the eyes immediately with large quantities of fresh
water for about 10 minutes, keeping the eye lids wide open.
Take the poisoned person to a health facility for further treatment if possible. For serious
organophosphate poisoning cases: inject 2-4 mg of atropine-sulphate into the muscle or blood
vessel as soon as possible; effects should then usually be apparent within 3-4 minutes (preferably
by medical personnel). ///what are the effects if atropine is injected and it was not a case of
organophosphate poisoning after all///
Chapter 6 : Vector control
p. 133
Form 6.1 : Example of report form to be filled in each day by team leaders
Country:______________________ Date:_________
Camp:_______________________
Name of team leader:____________ Name and type of insecticide
used9:________________
Concentration of insecticide in spraying solution (in gr. or ml insecticide per liter
water):__________
Name of area where sprayed
Number of sprayers at work
Number of days that sprayers have been spraying at one go
facilities sprayed (fill in for each type of facility):
no. of
facilities
sprayed
amount of
spraying solution used (in
liter)
Was the insecticide well mixed with the water? (y/n). If no, explain.
Was all spraying done according to the spraying needs and the required spraying
technique (see Box 6.4):
Was the distance from the surface during spraying 45 cm? (y/n)
Was the spraying speed right? (y/n)
Was the spraying pressure right? (y/n)
(control all these several times for several sprayers and the different facilities
sprayed during the day). If any of the questions is answered with no, explain the
problem.
Was any spraying solution spilled or left over (y/n)? If yes, give explanation.
What was done with left over solution?
Does the spraying kill the vector(s) targeted? (y/n). Check the just sprayed
facilities and the ones sprayed a few days ago. Also ask the people. Give remarks.
Have people been informed to wait at least half an hour after spraying before
entering a sprayed facility? (y/n). Did they really do this? (y/n). Observe twice a
day! Also check whether sprayers are checking this.
Were all food and utensils removed or well covered before spraying started?
(y/n). If no, explain. Also check whether sprayers are checking this each time
before spraying.
How many hours were the sprayers really spraying (should not be more than 4-5
hours)?
Were the sprayers fully protected during spraying with rubber boots, an overall,
eye protectors, mouth and nose mask, and gloves?
Did the sprayers and solution carriers wash their hands with water and soap each
time after mixing chemicals, after finishing work and before eating)? (y/n). If no,
9
Name of chemical product used and type of formulation (emulsifiable concentrate, EC, or wettable powder, WP, and indication of
concentration). For instance: ‘pirimiphos-methyl 50EC’ means that the product is an emulsifiable concentrate which contains 50% of active
ingredient; ‘deltamethrin 2.5 WP’ means that the product is a wettable powder with 2.5% active ingredient.
Chapter 6 : Vector control
p. 134
explain.
Did the mixer work safe (did he carry splashproof clothing, rubber boots, gloves,
mask and eye protectors, did he wash his hands afterwards, did he mix with a
stick, not touching the chemical with his hands)? (y/n) If problems were observed,
explain.
Was all equipment well cleaned at the end of the day? (y/n) If no, explain.
Any problems encountered with the equipment? Explain.
Other problems encountered (explain)
//////Figures of different spraying pumps with names of all parts. see WHO 1990. Equipment
for vector control, 3rd edition, Geneva: WHO [8]//////
Figure 6.2 The most suitable machines for internal residual spraying are handoperated, continuously pumped or pre-pressurized knapsack sprayers.
They should be cleaned daily and regularly serviced, with particular
attention given to preventing and repairing leaks.
From ...
Chapter 6 : Vector control
p. 135
Box 6.4 : Aspects of importance for the quality of spraying
Spraying technique
Keep the nozzle at 45 cm from the surface (gives a spraywidth of about 50 cm on the wall if the
spray angle is right, i.e. 60-650). To practice keeping the exact distance place a cord at 45 cm from
the wall or attach a 45 cm long pole to the nozzle. Spray in a vertical movement up and down (go
down by bending through the knees and keeping the nozzle horizontal), constantly at the required
spraying speed. This will ensure that exactly the amount needed to kill the vector is equally sprayed
on the wall. Indications of the required spraying technique are often described in documentation
from the manufacturer of the insecticide used or from the manufacturer of the pump equipment in
use.
Determining the spraying speed
But the spraying speed (expressed in amount of surface to be sprayed per unit of time) can also be
calculated:
Determine for each of a few pumps the pump discharge rate and take the average (Z, in
l/minute). The discharge rate can be determined by spraying in a measuring cup during 30
seconds and multiply the amount with two. This gives the discharge rate in ml/minute. A
standard figure to aim at is 0,760 l/minute! Make sure the nozzle is completely clean, the
pump checked to be well working and the pressure in the tank sufficient (see manufacturer’s
description).
Determine the amount of spraying solution per surface area (W, in l/ m2) which should
preferably be 0,04 l/ m2 (see also the specifications of the minimum objective).
Speed of spraying (in m2/minute) = Z/W which in an optimal situation would be 0,76/0,04 = 19
m2/minute.
Determining the required spraying time for a facility
Once the spraying speed is known it can be determined for each type of facility what the required
spraying time is:
measure the surface (in m2) to be sprayed in a few facilities and calculate the average (it is
assumed here that per type the facilities will not have too many differences in surface,
otherwise this is not a good method);
divide the average surface (m2) through the determined spraying speed (m2/minute) to get the
required spraying times of that type of facility (in minutes).
Be aware though that the required spraying time does not include the time needed for other
activities during the visit to a facility which also take time, such as walking from one surface to the
other in the facility, talking to the people, nor the time needed between spraying the facilities, such
as the time for walking from one facility to the next, taking brakes, etc.
The team leader can easily monitor the time it takes the sprayers to spray a facility (only measure
when they are really spraying) and compare this with the required spraying time. In case these two
figures differ more than about 20% he should assess what is wrong and correct the sprayers. Be
careful also to keep controlling the quality of spraying and whether the sprayers cover the required
surface properly, even if the spraying time is correct.
Chapter 6 : Vector control
p. 136
Box 6.4 continued
Example of determining the required spraying time of a facility
Suppose the spraying speed has been calculated to be 19 m2 per minute (see above). If sprayers are
supposed to spray the walls of a latrine, rectangular in shape, up to a height of 1 m, plus its latrine
floor, while the latrine floor is 1.2 times 1.2 m in size, then the spraying time for this facility can be
determined as follows:
Surface of latrine floor to be sprayed = 1.2 x 1.2 = 1.44 m2
Surface of walls to be sprayed = 4 x 1.2 x 1
= 4.80 m2
--------- +
Total surface
= 6.24 m2
Spraying time for the latrine = 6.24/19 = about 0,33 min or 20 seconds.
Controlling the spraying pressure
The pressure in a hand compression sprayer should be 25 to 55 psi. If there is no pressure gauge
determine the number of strokes of the pump needed to produce a correct initial flow (this should be
about 760 ml/minute; see above). Tank pressure drops during spraying, resulting in a decrease in
flow, a wider angle of spray, and an increase in the size of droplets. When this happens, the tank
needs to be pumped again. The pumps should be calibrated periodically to ensure the correct flow.
Other aspects of spraying quality
Often when flies or mosquitoes come back very soon after spraying it is said that this is due to the
development of resistance against the insecticide. This is possible but it can also be due to poor
application of the chemical to the surfaces. Example: in Benaco camp, Tanzania, it was observed
that ‘a large quantity of the insecticide runs off from the plastic used for the construction of the
latrines’ (Ivorra C. V. et al , 1994).
Chapter 6 : Vector control
p. 137
Box 6.5: Preparing the spraying solution
How to determine the amount of insecticide needed in the spraying solution
Determine the amount of active ingredient needed per m2 to kill the vector (Y, in gr. of a.i. / m2). This figure is
usually indicated on the insecticide container or in any documentation from the manufacturer (see also the list
of minimum standards in Annex ..).
Determine the amount of active ingredient in the insecticide (U, in weight percentage, which is the same as
100 x (no. of grams of a.i./gram of insecticide). For example ‘Deltamethrin 2.5 WP’ means that the insecticide
contains 2.5 weight% of active ingredient.
Determine the amount of spraying solution per surface area (W, in l/ m2). Usually a standard figure is taken for
this: 0,04 l/ m2
The amount of insecticide needed (V) to make the required spraying solution can be calculated as follows:
For insecticides in powder form:
V = (Yx100)/(UxW) in grams insecticide per liter of water, or
(10xUxW/Y) in liters of water that need to be added to 1 kg of insecticide
For insecticides in liquid form:
V = 1/{(10xUxW/Y)-1} in liter insecticide per liter of water, or
(10xUxW/Y) -1 in parts of water that need to be added to 1 part of insecticide
Examples:
For Deltamethrin 2.5 WP (wettable powder, an insecticide in powder form that can be suspended in water):
Y = 0,05 gr. of a.i. per m2 (see the minimum standards in Annex ...)
U = 2,5% (as indicated in the insecticide’s name ‘Deltamethrin 2.5 WP’)
W = 0,04 l/ m2
With these figures the amount of insecticide needed can be calculated: V = (0,05x100)/(2,5x0,04) = 50 gr.
insecticide per liter of water (or 20 l of water per kg of insecticide).
For Pirimiphos-methyl 50 EC (emulsifiable concentrate, an insecticide in liquid form that can be mixed with
water to form an emulsion):
Y = 1,0 gr. of a.i. per m2 (see the minimum standards in Annex ...)
U = 50% (as indicated in the insecticide’s name ‘Pirimiphos-methyl 50 EC’)
W = 0,04 l/ m2
With these figures the amount of insecticide needed can be calculated: V = 1/{(10x50x0,04/1,0) - 1} = 1/19 =
appr. 0,053 liter (or 53 ml) insecticide per liter of water (in other words: mix 1 part of insecticide with 19 parts
of water).
How to make a spraying solution out of a wettable powder
When using powders for suspensions the powder should be put into a receptacle with a little water, and mixed
to obtain a paste. This paste should then be thinned by adding small quantities of water until the desired
volume is attained and the resulting mixture poured through a filter into the spraying tank.
Chapter 6 : Vector control
p. 138
Box 6.6 : Determining the number of sprayers needed
Depending on the spraying interval (which is determined by the required frequency of treatment as described in
the specifications of the minimum objective) the number of sprayers needed can be determined if it has been
determined for each facility type how many facilities can be sprayed per sprayer per day and how many
facilities there are of each type:
No. of sprayers = A1/(B x C1) + A2/(B x C2) + ... etc.
where:
A1 = total number of facilities of type 1
A2 = total number of facilities of type 2, ..etc.
B = the required spraying interval (in days) (which is the same for the different facility types if they are
sprayed with the same chemicals or with chemicals of the same required treatment frequency)
C1 = Number of facilities of type 1 that can be sprayed by a sprayer per day
C2 = Number of facilities of type 2 that can be sprayed by a sprayer per day, ... etc.
The number of facilities of a certain type that can be sprayed by one sprayer per day depends on factors such
as:
* the spraying speed
* the surface of the facility to be sprayed (with which the required spraying time can be determined if the
spraying speed is known as shown above)
* the time needed in the facility for other activities than spraying (e.g. walking around, explaining things to
people, covering things to protect them against the spraying solution if forgotten by the beneficiaries)
* the time needed to go from one to another facility
* the time lost due to delayed supply of the spraying solution (e.g. if logistics are not well organized, spraying
solution not ready in time, or too few carriers for the spraying solution), or, if sprayers have to go back
themselves to obtain new spraying solution each time when their pump is empty, the time needed for walking
up and down, including the time needed for resting
* the numbers of hours per day (should be 4 to 5) and numbers of days per week (should be 5) the sprayers
actually are allowed to work
In theory one worker can empty his handsprayer, containing 8 liters of spraying solution, 8 to 10 times a day
which is enough to treat up to 2,000 m2 per day, or 40 dwellings of 50 m2 each. In practice however, this will
be less, due to the factors described above. In each residual spraying program it should therefore be determined
in practice how many facilities one sprayer can really spray per day.
Remark:
Usually sprayers are told the number of facilities they have to spray each day. Because of this they may be
tempted though to speed up their work in order to finish the number of facilities as quick as possible so that
they can go home early. This will then probably affect the quality of spraying which should be prevented
(among others through close supervision of supervisor and program manager).
Chapter 6 : Vector control
p. 139
6.2.4 Insecticide mixers
Tools/materials needed per mixer:
One pair of rubber gloves, 1 pair of rubber boots, 1 comfortable long-sleeved cotton overall,
soap, 2 reservoirs of 1 l with volume indication, 2 large reservoirs of 20 l, 2 buckets, 1 stick
for mixing.
Each team of mixers should additionally have: 2 shovels, 1 pick, 2 brooms, a large enough,
smooth and clean apron to work on, preferably close to where the chemicals are kept in stock
and preferably covered with a roof, but well ventilated, a large bin, plastic bags, sand, water.
Number of team mixers needed:
One per .........
Tasks:
Task
Description
Timing
Mix the
chemicals
Mix the chemicals with the water in the large reservoirs according
to the prescriptions received from the program manager. Avoid as
much as possible to make too much (therefore mix in several rounds
and base the amounts made on the amounts needed in former days).
Every
day
Work according to the safety rules (drain wastewater away from
water sources, soak up spilled solution with absorbent material, and
place together with swept solid formulations and other chemical
contaminations in plastic bags and bury safely; wash and destroy
empty insecticide containers and then bury safely; make sure people
don’t take the containers with them for personal use which is very
dangerous; wear rubber gloves and boots; don’t let any unauthorized
persons come near the chemicals).
Specifications
important for
execution of
the task
See Box 6.5
for how to
prepare a
spraying
solution with a
wettable
powder.
For safety
rules see Box
6.1
Return unused chemicals back to the store at the end of the day.
Register
the use of
spraying
solution
See Form 6.2
Register every day how much spraying solution each spraying team
is using.
At the
end of
Fill in the
daily
report
every
working
day
Report to
and discuss
with field
administrator
Report numbers of empty containers buried and the locations of
burial to the field administrator every week and discuss with him in
case his figures are different. Also discuss use of chemicals with him
and compare with his administration.
At the
end of
each
week
Report in
case of
serious
problems
Report immediately to suitable persons (team leaders, sprayers,
administrator, supervisor or the manager) in case serious problems
are encountered.
Wheneve
r serious
problems
occur
Chapter 6 : Vector control
p. 140
See Form 6.2
Form 6.2 Example of report form to be filled in each day by leader of
mixers
Country:______________________
Camp:__________________________
Date:_______________________
Name of team leader:_______________
Name and type of insecticide used10:________________________
Concentration of insecticide in spraying solution (in gr. or ml of insecticide per liter
water):________
Amount of spraying solution used per spraying
team (fill in for each team)
Amount of insecticide used (in kg or liters).
How many containers were buried today?
Were all empty insecticide containers washed,
destroyed and buried properly (this is a task of the
mixers!)? (y/n). If no, explain. Write down
location of burial.
Was all spraying equipment, mixing containers
etc. well cleaned at the end of the day? (y/n). If
no, explain.
If mixing is executed by the team leaders or the sprayers themselves, the information of this
form should be included in the daily reporting forms of one of the team leaders of the sprayers
or the form should be filled in by the supervisor.
10
see the specifications for the minimum objective and Box 6.5 for explanation.
Chapter 6 : Vector control
p. 141
6.2.5 Supervisor
Tools/materials needed per supervisor:
One notebook, reporting forms, 1 pen, soap, 2 pairs of rubber gloves, 1 pair of rubber boots, 2
comfortable long-sleeved cotton overalls, 2 broad rimmed hats, 1 pair of plastic safety
glasses, 2 /felt?/ masks.
Number of supervisors needed:
One per ... spraying teams.
Tasks:
Task
Description
Timing
Specifications
important for
execution of
the task
Control the
work of
sprayers,
team leaders
and other
staff
Control whether the sprayers, team leaders and other staff
execute their tasks well by visiting them, observing their work
(use their task description as a checklist) and discussing about
the work with them. Pay special attention to:
Control every
day.
See task
descriptions of
sprayers, team
leaders and other
staff
* safety of spraying, quality of the work done,
* opinions and remarks of camp inhabitants with regard to
spraying,
* handling of chemicals, and
* right dosing and concentrations of chemicals used.
Discuss with the involved people how things can be done
better/safer.
Visit staff as
often as
possible.
Visit each
spraying
team at least
once every
two weeks
during half a
day
Check whether sufficient facilities are sprayed (it should have
been determined how many facilities of each type a sprayer
can spray per day).
Advise and correct where necessary. Follow up on problems
encountered. Increase the observations with staff having or
causing problems.
Visit teams
unannounced
Visit staff unannounced once in a while to check whether
sprayers and other staff are really on site and not rushing their
work to be ready as quick as possible so that they can go home
early. If such behavior is observed or suspected it should be
discussed with the team leader, sprayers and/or other staff and
made clear to them that this is unacceptable. Then in the future
check the concerned staff/teams more intensively.
Chapter 6 : Vector control
p. 142
Visit staff as
often as
possible. Visit
each spraying
team at least
once every
two weeks
unannounced
For safety
aspects see also
Box 6.1
Tasks (continued):
Task
Description
Timing
Control
equipment,
tools,
materials,
chemicals
Chemicals must be stored correctly
Once a month
Supplies must be sufficient for at least two weeks. If not
available, discuss with administrator and ensure that new
supplies are ordered.
Control regularly whether all equipment and tools are still
there and in good condition. In principle the sprayers are
responsible for the repairs and calibrations of their equipment
themselves. They can use the tools from the store and ask the
mechanic of the water program for help. Only in case of
serious problems should the equipment be taken to a
professional workshop.
Compare the figures about materials and insecticides used, in
the bookkeeping of the field administrator, with the figures in
the reports of the team leaders of the spraying teams and the
mixers, and comment on the differences in the weekly report.
Execute a
mosquito
survey
In case of spraying against mosquitoes, execute a mosquito
survey. The assessment should be carried out in ...% of the
huts which should be selected ad randomly.
If problems appear to arise in specific parts of the camp the
assessment should focus on these parts. Make a separate report
about the results (see the example in Appendix 8) and provide
to the program manager (probably the survey will be done
together with the program manager).
Make weekly
report
The report should contain a summary overview of the team
reports of all teams together for the whole week.
Control the team reports on their correctness and quality, then
sum up all the categories and include those in the weekly
report.
Describe for instance the total number of facilities sprayed by
all teams together, areas where sprayed, effectiveness of
spraying (does it kill the vectors; do they spray all the surfaces
to be sprayed well?), figures on absenteeism, other problems
that have occurred during that week etc.
The report should also contain the findings of the supervisor
himself (e.g. the observations he made during his field visits
with the teams) and other issues the chief, team leaders,
sprayers, mixers, carriers or others involved find important.
Chapter 6 : Vector control
p. 143
Once every
two months
and
whenever a
significant
change in
mosquito
population
or malaria
(or other
diseases
caused by
mosquitoes)
is observed
or suspected
Weekly
Specifications
important for
execution of
the task
There should
not be more
than ///5 %??//
difference
between the
figures from
the field
administrator
and those
from the
spraying
teams and
mixers
Carry out the
assessment
following the
descriptions of
method 2 in
Appendix 8.
For examples
of ad random
selection of
huts see Box
7.9
See Form 6.3
Chapter 6 : Vector control
p. 144
Form 6.3: Example of report form to be filled in each week by the
supervisor
Country:______________________
Camp:__________________________
Date:_______________________
Name of supervisor:_______________
Names of areas where sprayed
Number of spraying days effectively made (sum up the numbers of sprayers
at work from all team leader’s reports of that week)
Total number of sprayers
Total number of team leaders (should be 25% of number of sprayers)
Total number of insecticide solution carriers
Total number of mixers
Number of days that sprayers have been spraying at one go
Total numbers of facilities sprayed (fill in for each type of facility; check if
sufficient; if not discuss with team leaders how to increase spraying the next
week and give comments):
Total amount of insecticide used (in liter or kg). Take the average of: 1) the
figure from the field administrator, and 2) the sum of all mixer’s reports. If
these figures differ more than 5% from each other describe them both; in such
case it should be investigated with the involved team leaders, the mixers and
the field administrator what the problem is.
Total amount of spraying solution used (in liters). Take the average of: 1)
the sum of all team leader’s reports, and 2) the sum of all mixer’s reports. If
these figures differ more than 5% from each other describe them all three; in
such case it should be investigated with the involved team leaders and the
mixers what the problem is. Describe the action undertaken/proposed in case
of problems.
The average concentration of the insecticide in the spraying solution (in
gr. or ml of insecticide per liter of water). Calculate by dividing the above
figure for the amount of insecticide used by the above figure for the amount of
spraying solution used. Control the outcome with the figures for the
concentration determined to be necessary by the program and the figures
written on the daily forms of the mixers and the team leaders. If there are
differences discuss with team leaders, mixers and manager.
Problems encountered with the required spraying technique (distance of
nozzle from surface, spraying speed, spraying pressure; see also Box 6.4).
Describe the serious problems and the actions taken to solve them. If problems
are not yet solved, describe what you have planned or what you propose to
solve them.
Problems encountered with safety issues (see task descriptions of the
different actors and Box 6.1). Describe the problems and the actions taken to
solve them. Have the problems been solved? If not, describe what actions are,
will be or are proposed to be undertaken to solve them.
Does the spraying kill the vector(s) targeted? (y/n). Check the teamleader’s
reports and their remarks. Also observe yourself during the field visits in the
Chapter 6 : Vector control
p. 145
just sprayed facilities and the ones sprayed a few days ago. Also ask the
people. Give remarks.
Are all equipment and tools still in good order? If not, explain.
Other problems encountered (explain + give recommendations on how to
solve if not yet solved)
6.2.6 Program manager
Tools/materials needed:
Notebook, pen, soap, 1 pair of rubber gloves, 1 pair of rubber boots, 1 comfortable longsleeved cotton overall, 1 broad rimmed hat, 1 pair of plastic safety glasses, 1 /felt?/ masks.
Number of program managers needed:
One plus possibly a counterpart.
Tasks:
Task
Description
Timing
Specifications
important for
execution of
the task
Execute
general
tasks
Execute all manager’s general tasks
See par.
3.5.4
see par. 3.5.4
Analyze
reports
Obtain and analyze the weekly report from the supervisor of the
residual spraying program and every few weeks crosscheck his
report for instance with all weekly reports from the team leaders of
the sprayers.
Every
week
See the reporting
forms in this
chapter
Check
new
insecticides
Assess/determine each time when new insecticides arrive (often
other brands/sorts of insecticides are sent than ordered) whether the
insecticide can be used against the insects to be sprayed.
Wheneve
r new
insecticid
es arrive
See the labels
of and
documentation
coming with
the insecticides
Control date of expiry, safety implications, dosage, whether it is
allowed in the country, its compatibility with the spray machinery in
use, etc.
See Thomson
1995
Provide sprayers, chief and team leaders with new instructions if
required. (it may be possible to let the logistician perform these
tasks, but then he needs to be supervised carefully).
Visit all
actors
Control the work of all actors in the program by visiting them during
their work (use their task descriptions as checklists).
The spraying teams should be visited once a week to once every two
months, depending on the situation (visit together with supervisor if
possible; see also further on). Control whether the actors carry out
their tasks correctly, (also whether they control safety, effectiveness
and quality of the work).
Talk informally to all actors in the program and organize short
meetings with them.
Stimulate people to come to you with their problems/remarks. Also
ask some beneficiaries informally about their remarks/ideas with
regard to the spraying activities (ask whether they think the program
is executed safely, and whether they believe it is effective against
Chapter 6 : Vector control
p. 146
As often
as
possible
. Visit
each
group of
actors at
least
once a
month
See also the
remarks in Box
6…)
the vectors.
If any of the actors do not function well, assess (through discussion
with them, observation etc.) whether this is caused by a lack of
knowledge, poor motivation (e.g. due to low salaries), awareness
problems, or other causes (e.g. poor equipment). Try to solve the
problems together with the involved actors and provide training
where necessary. If people continue to function poorly it may be
necessary to fire them.
Chapter 6 : Vector control
p. 147
Tasks (continued):
Task
Description
Timing
Specifications
important for
execution of
the task
Assist in
Mosquito
survey
Assist the supervisor with the preparation and execution of
spraying and collection of mosquitoes. Analyze the results
together with the supervisor and the involved sprayers and use
the outcome, in accordance with the explanations in Appendix
8, to draw conclusions with respect to adaptations or further
investigations needed.
Once a
//month?// and
whenever
believed
necessary
Work
according to
method 2 in
par. A8.2,
Appendix 8
Control the
work of the
supervisor
Control the work of the supervisor. Check the quality of his
reports. Get an idea informally on how he functions. Go with
him into the field during his visits to the spraying team and
observe both the work of the sprayers and the supervisor.
Join the
supervisor in
the field once
a week
Assess
treatment
frequencies
Determine how often facilities are treated based on the reports
of the sprayers. Control whether this is frequent enough
(usually the frequency should be once every two to three
months). Discuss with the sprayers, team leaders and
supervisor how the problems can be solved if the frequency is
not high enough.
Every week
See the
specifications
for the
minimum
objective
Analyze
health
statistics
Control health statistics (obtained from the curative health
programs) for the diseases transmitted by the vectors sprayed
against once a week.
Every week
See par. 3.2,
Appendixes
11 and 12
One a week
See Forms .. and
…
Use the information to draw conclusions about the impact of
the spraying program in combination with information about
the effectiveness of the spraying program. Discuss the results
also with curative health staff and other key persons. Assess
whether spraying is still needed by looking at the health
statistics and organizing insect counts. Be careful with
seasonal fluctuations!
Fill in
weekly and
monthly
reports
//// form for residual spraying program part of the weekly and
monthly reports still to be developed./// Include important
findings in the weekly report: numbers of facilities sprayed,
total numbers of facilities, spraying intervals (based on
calculations with the numbers of facilities sprayed that week),
amounts of chemicals used. Explain whether numbers of
facilities sprayed was enough to assure the required treatment
frequency (and what should be done if not), whether the
amounts of chemicals used were sufficient (or too low or too
high) for assuring the required doses of active ingredient on
the surfaces sprayed that week, and other explanations about
effectiveness of the program. Also comment on the believed
impact of the program based on the developments in health
statistics and information about the effectiveness of the
program. Give a planning of actions needed and their timing.
Also include a resume of the weekly reports in the monthly
reports following the format in ......
Evaluate
the
program
Once a month
Every 3
months +
when
believed that
Chapter 6 : Vector control
p. 148
See Box 6.8
the program
does not
achieve its
objective
Box 6.7 Some remarks with respect to the effectiveness of residual spraying
programs executed in plastic shelters
There are several questions regarding the effectiveness of indoor residual spraying in the Rwandan
refugee camps which urgently need to be investigated:
* Do mosquitoes feed and rest in the plastic shelters?
* Do they rest on the plastic or on other available surfaces?
* Which insecticides and formulations are suitable for the plastic?
* How long does the residual effect last?
* Do the active ingredients remain on the surface if the facility is not covered (and are thus prone to
rain and sunshine)?
(adapted from Cano V.I. et al 1994).
Box 6.8 Evaluating the residual spraying program
Once in a while it will be necessary to evaluate the program, i.e. to assess whether the objective set
for the residual spraying program is achieved or, more specifically, whether the program is
successful in certain aspects (looking at one or a number of the success factors as described in
paragraph 2.8 of this manual). It is recommended to evaluate every 3 months whether the objective
of the program is sufficiently achieved (thus looking specifically at the specifications determined
for the objective) and whenever it is found or suspected that the program is not achieving its
objective or certain aspects important for its success. Some idea is given below of how to do a
general evaluation of the program (i.e. looking mainly into the extent to which the objective is
achieved, thus looking into the specifications set for the objective, plus some additional aspects
which are generally important for the success of the program).
To be evaluated
How to evaluate
Effectiveness of spraying
1. Black box investigation
Without knowing anything about the Ins and Outs of the program
you can execute a mosquito investigation as described in Box 6.9 in
a number of ad randomly chosen huts (see Box 7.9 for examples of
how huts can be selected ad randomly). If the results are OK (i.e. the
Chapter 6 : Vector control
p. 149
numbers of mosquitoes found are within the acceptable levels as
indicated in Appendix 8) this gives an indication that probably the
effectiveness of spraying is OK. It is not sufficient proof though and
therefore additional aspects need to be evaluated as discussed in the
following points. The information obtained with those points gives
more insight in details of how the program functions which may
allow for finding ways to further improve the program even if the
overall effectiveness is already OK.
Chapter 6 : Vector control
p. 150
To be evaluated
How to evaluate
Effectiveness of spraying
(continued)
2. Quality of spraying.
* spraying speed,
* distance from surface,
* extent to which facilities are
sprayed completely
* proper functioning of
equipment
Visit one or a number of teams at work and observe how they work.
Check against the information in Boxes 6.2 and 6.4 and the task
description of sprayers that contain details with regard to the
required quality of spraying. Also discuss the work with the sprayers
and the team leaders and ask them what can still be improved
according to them.
3. Coverage of spraying
* number of facilities sprayed
per time unit
Get information from the daily reports of the team leaders, the
weekly reports of the supervisors and/or the weekly and monthly
reports of the manager. Observe one or a few of the sprayers to see
how many facilities they can spray in a day. Ask sprayers and team
leaders how many facilities they can/do spray. Check that with the
numbers sprayed per time unit the rotation is sufficiently quick to
secure the required frequency of treatment as described in the
specifications of the program objective.
* proof that all facilities are
taken up in spraying rotation
Discuss with manager, sprayers, team leaders and supervisor. Ask
beneficiaries during unstructured walk through the camp.
4. Effectiveness of the chemicals
used
* Is the concentration of the
chemicals used in the spraying
solution right?
Calculate, based on the specifications of the program objective and
the explanation in Box 6.5 whether the spraying solution has the
required concentration of the chemical used.
* Is the lasting effect of the
chemicals used on the sprayed
surfaces sufficient?
A problem with the lasting effects of the insecticides on the surfaces
sprayed (see also Box 6.7) is difficult to investigate. A conclusion of
the evaluation may be that this aspect could possibly be the cause of
poor effectiveness of the program when all other aspects related to
the effectiveness of the program have been investigated and found to
be in order.
Also a test can be done (but one should be sure then that the
concentration of the spraying solution and the quality of the
chemical used is OK and that the quality of spraying is Ok as well):
take a piece of the material which is used as wall material in the
facilities, spray it the way it is usually done when spraying the
facilities, form the material into a small closed space and release
mosquitoes in this space, then observe whether they die. Do this
with different time intervals after spraying to obtain an indication
(see Appendix …). In theory mosquitoes should die at least during
the period covering the frequency interval of spraying. As indicated
Chapter 6 : Vector control
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in the specifications of the program objective.
Ask beneficiaries what they think about the lasting effects of
spraying.
* Are the chemicals not expired
or affected?
Control expiry dates and observe whether the chemicals are properly
stored both in the field and office stores. Also observe how spraying
solution is kept and whether left over spraying solution is stored
properly and not too long.
Chapter 6 : Vector control
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To be evaluated
How to evaluate
Effectiveness of spraying
(continued)
5. Provision of the spraying
solution.
* Are the chemicals ordered in
time?
* Are the chemicals available in
sufficient quantity?
* Are the chemicals stored well?
* Are the chemicals mixed well
and in the right concentration?
* Is the provision of the spraying
solution to the sprayers well in
time?
Observe how chemicals are stored and whether the chemicals are
kept in sufficient quantity in store (the amount required in store
should be indicated on the stock card of the chemical which again
should have been determined by the program taking both
operational and contingency aspects into consideration).
Discuss with sprayers, mixers, team leaders and field
administrator about the availability (quantity, timing) of the
chemicals and the spraying solution.
Observe how the spraying solution is prepared. Control whether
sufficient chemical is added and whether mixing is well done.
6. Errors.
* facilities larger than anticipated
(working with the determined
spraying time for the facilities
then results in a too low dose of
active ingredient applied to the
surfaces)
* wrong calculation of required
concentration of insecticide in
the spraying solution (resulting
in too low or too high dose of
active ingredient applied to the
surfaces)
Look into these aspects if the earlier investigations regarding the
effectiveness of the program have given indications in the
direction of errors (if not yet done during these investigations).
Measure spraying time for spraying facilities and control the
surfaces to be sprayed in a number of the facilities. Make
calculations based on the information in Boxes 6.4 and 6.5 and
compare the results with what is practiced in the program.
* wrong calculation of required
spraying time of facilities
Chapter 6 : Vector control
p. 153
Relevance
Look into health statistics of the diseases caused by the targeted
vectors of the period before the start of the program and possibly
after the start and assess whether the incidences of the diseases
caused by the targeted vectors are sufficiently high to justify the
program (use paragraph 3.2). If possible also assess health
statistics of the local population in the area to get further
information on this aspect. Assess whether vector caused diseases
found in the camp may have been imported from outside the
camp.
Talk with key persons about the vector problems before the
program started and/or the vector problems in areas adjacent to the
camp
Chapter 6 : Vector control
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To be evaluated
How to evaluate
Effectiveness of the control
and information system
Assess whether log books, forms and reports as described in this chapter
or in the operational protocols of the program have been filled
in/produced as required (look in task descriptions how often reports
should be made, check in logbooks whether they have been filled in on a
sufficiently regular basis, etc.)
Take a few reports, logbook forms and other forms and study the details.
Cross-check the information found where possible (e.g. with cross-check
info from a logbook with info in reports and other logbooks, by visits in
the field controlling things found in the forms, etc.). Pay special
attention to subjects that with other investigations have shown to be
problematic.
Safety
Assess, based on the task descriptions, the information in logbooks and
forms, the information in Box 6.1, and observations done during the
work of all actors in the spraying program whether safety rules are
sufficiently put into practice.
Impact
Health statistics in
combination with
effectiveness and relevance of
program
1. Health statistics.
Evaluate health statistics with the methodology described in paragraph
3.2 of this manual.
Be aware though that also other factors than the program may have
influence, for instance:
* diseases may be imported from outside the camp, for instance by new
arrivals and people who move in and out of the camp frequently,
visiting endemic areas where no protection is available.
* the vectors may be active and transmitting diseases in other places than
the facilities sprayed (which would mean that the program could be
effective in itself, but should be extended to those other places or, if this
is not possible, be replaced by another kind of program).
* poor diagnosis of diseases (e.g. a fever is not always malaria; when a
high percentage of fevers is misdiagnosed for malaria while in fact the
fever is another disease which has nothing to do with a vector wrong
conclusions about the impact of the spraying program may be drawn)
* diseases which can be transmitted to humans by vectors but also
through other ways (e.g. diarheal diseases). If the disease has a high
incidence it does not yet automatically mean then that the vector is
not maintained at an acceptable level.
2. Effectiveness and relevance
See earlier in this Box. Try to find arguments based on the health
Chapter 6 : Vector control
p. 155
statistics and information about the effectiveness and relevance of the
program to what extent you believe the program has a positive impact on
the health of the target population with regard to diseases caused by the
vectors targeted by the program.
of the program.
To be evaluated
How to evaluate
Efficiency
1. Cost of chemicals (are there cheaper
alternatives?)
Investigate costs of the chemicals and other suitable alternative
chemicals that can be made available
2. Numbers of staff
Reportings on numbers of staff, if not available count
3. Is it necessary to continue spraying
with the intervals determined (e.g.
is it necessary to spray at all in the
dry season)?
Try-outs for instance in one part of the camp of longer intervals
during dry season (be careful for island effect, i.e. that in the test part
it seems Ok but the reason is only that no vectors can enter there as it
is surrounded by other, well-sprayed parts; be also careful not to use
camp inhabitants as a testing ground)
4. Is efficient use made of the
spraying solution (not too much
and not too little)?
Assess how much spraying solution would theoretically be required
for the facilities sprayed and compare with what is used in practice.
Box 6.9
Two possibilities to test the effectiveness of spraying
1. Spray and collect mosquitoes using method 2 in par. A8.2, Appendix 8, in a selected number of
dwellings a first time, then part of the same huts one week later, another part two weeks later etc.
Compare the results (i.e. numbers of mosquitoes killed). If this investigation reveals that either the
number of mosquitoes is high from the start or the numbers of mosquitoes are increasing within a
couple of weeks (esp. if the number of blood containing mosquitoes increases; see also the
explanations in Appendix 8) the program is probably not effective enough and action may be
needed. However before drawing far reaching conclusions it should be kept in mind that other
factors may play a role as well, for instance the fact that most problems with mosquitoes usually
occur near mosquito breeding sites (thus in huts near these sites more mosquitoes are likely to be
found even if effective spraying is done) and that due to seasonal influences numbers of
mosquitoes may increase which may temporarily increase incidence levels of malaria despite the
fact that spraying is well done. Before stopping or drastically changing the program ask for expert
advise first!
2. Cut out a few pieces of just sprayed surfaces (if made of plastic or cloth) (make sure to provide new
material to the owners). Form the material into a small closed space and release mosquitoes in this
space, then observe whether they die. Do this with different time intervals after spraying. In theory
mosquitoes should die at least during the whole spraying interval period (which should be indicated
in the specifications of the program objective). Alternatively you can take a piece of the material
similar to the wall material in the facilities and spray it the way it is usually done when spraying the
Chapter 6 : Vector control
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facilities.
Chapter 6 : Vector control
p. 157
6.2.7 Field administrator
Tools/materials needed per field administrator specifically for the residual spraying program:
//to be determined still///
Tasks with regard to the residual spraying program:
* As part of the general administrative procedure to make a field stock overview report every
month (see chapter ....) determine the amounts of materials and insecticides used in the
residual spraying program available in the field stock once a month. Control and short-cut
with the supervisor that the amounts of insecticides still available in the field stock are
sufficient to last for at least 2 to 4 weeks. If not, order new supplies for at least 1 to 2
months with the responsible person (office logistician, office administrator, or program
manager). Report to the program manager and/or supervisor of the residual spraying
program in case of problems.
* In case organophosphates are used (e.g. pirimiphos-methyl, malathion or fenitrothion)
control that there is a stock of injectable atropine (to be used in case of organophosphate
poisoning).
* Control proper storage of materials and insecticides according to the specifications by the
manufacturers. Ensure that insecticides are always stored seperately from food stuffs and
under lock and key, in a dark, dry and cool (but not cold) place. Report to the program
manager in case of problems.
* Obtain figures about empty insecticide containers from the mixers every week, including
information of the burial sites. Include in bookkeeping and compare the figures with the
amounts still in stock according to the bookkeeping. Discuss with mixer and report to
supervisor and/or manager in case of differences found.
6.2.8 Office administrator
Tools/materials needed specifically with regard to the residual spraying program:
//to be determined still///
Tasks within the residual spraying program:
* Once a month control the supplies in all office stocks (both quality of storage and the
amounts in stock) and sum up the amounts with the amounts still available in the field
stocks (obtain the monthly bookkeepings from the field administrator) as part of the
standard administrative procedures described in Chapter .... Insecticides should always be
stored according to the manufacturer’s specifications, and separately from foodstuffs,
under lock and key, in a dark, dry and cool (but not cold) place. The amount of insecticide
in the office stock should be enough to supply all spraying programs a supply enough for at
least /////1 month//////. Make sure new supplies are ordered if needed. Report to the
program manager in case of any problems detected.
* Control each field stock (both quality of storage and comparison of the amounts with the
field administration) once every //two to three months/// as part of the standard
administrative procedures described in Chapter .... Report to the program manager in case
of any problems detected.
* Each time when insecticides arrive check whether they have been transported correctly.
The containers in which they are stored should be secured properly and the vehicles should
be well ventilated. There should be no food items in the same vehicle.
Chapter 6 : Vector control
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6.2.9 Logistician in charge of purchasing the insecticide
Tools/materials needed per logistician specifically for the residual spraying program:
//to be determined still///
Tasks with regard to the residual spraying program:
* Each time when buying insecticides control whether the insecticide is accepted in the
country of application, has given satisfactory results in all four phases of the WHO
Pesticide Evaluation Scheme (WHOPES) and complies with WHO specifications (see
Specifications for pesticides used in public health, WHO, 1985, and subsequent issues for
specific products and formulations), is new, suitable for use against the target vector(s) and
for use in the spraying equipment available in the project. If there is any doubt, the quality
of the insecticide can be verified by sending a sample, prior to buying, to an independent
analyst.
///////////////
6.2.10 Recommended literature
Davis J. and Lambert R. 1995. Engineering in emergencies. A practical guide for relief
workers. RedR. IT publication.
Thomson, M.C. 1995. Disease prevention through vector control. Guidelines for relief
organizations. Oxfam practical health guide no. 10.
UNHCR. 1997. Vector and pest control in refugee situations. PTSS/UNHCR, ISS/WHO.
Compiled by G. Sabatinelli. Geneva, April 1997.
6.3Rodent control programs
6.3.1 Introduction
Because documentation on rodent control in camps is limited first a general introduction is given to
the subject (paragraphs .. to ..) after which the monitoring aspects for rodent control programs in
camps are highlighted (paragraphs ... to ...).
The most common rodents are rats and mice. Rodents:
 consume large amounts of food
 foul stored food rendering it unfit for consumption
 damage stored products such as soap, blankets
 damage buildings and other structures
 transmit disease
 carry parasites that transmit disease
 damage electrical gear, computers etc.
WARNING
Killing rodents or removing their shelter areas may cause their parasites (e.g. fleas) to
move on to humans and thereby cause increased transmission of disease such as plague or
murine typhus. Therefore, if such danger exists it will be necessary to take action against
the parasites first (e.g. by insecticidal dusting of rodent runs to kill the parasites on the
rodents) before rodent control measures are taken.
Chapter 6 : Vector control
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In adequate presence of the three factors food, shelter and water, most rodent populations can rapidly
multiply. In theory, that is if all these three factors are in ample supply, one couple and their offspring
can produce several millions of descendants in a year!
In practise however, usually one or more of the factors become scarce resulting in a levelling off of the
population growth until finally a maximum population has evolved which is in balance with the most
limiting of the three factors. This process is represented in the upper part of the curve in Figure ...
(next page). However, in case the most limiting factor (usually food, sometimes water) becomes more
favourable this will result in an increased reproduction until the maximum population size is reached
for the new circumstances. Vice versa, if one or more of the factors become more limiting, the
maximum population size becomes smaller.
Time
Figure ...
Rodent population growth curve.
The following should be taken into consideration when planning a rodent control programme:
If a control campaign is inadequate the rodent population will not be reduced sufficiently (i.e. below
10% of its original level) and will end up somewhere in the steep part of the curve. A population in
this part of the curve tends to increase in number very rapidly (because the circumstances for
reproduction are optimal: there is no scarcity of food, shelter and water) which means that either a
continuous and further increased effort will be needed to keep their numbers reduced or that the
population will increase in number again even if continuing the control efforts at a certain level. To
control rodents the right way and avoid the undesirable situation described above, two strategies can
be followed:
1. Reduce rodent access to one or more of the three factors food, shelter and water so that the
maximum population size will become smaller. This may be achieved through preventive measures
limiting one or more of the three factors and therewith reduce the maximum rodent population.
However, preventive measures may not be sufficient, not yield effects timely enough, or be
difficult to implement in the short time available. For such situations the second strategy may be
appropriate.
2. Reduce the rodent population to less than 10% of its original size (through which it arrives in
the low, not very reproductive part of the curve). This may be achieved through trapping or
chemical control measures.
Chapter 6 : Vector control
p. 160
6.3.2 Preventive measures
Preventive measures aim to reduce the access of rodents to food, shelter and/or water and therewith
reduce their maximum population size. Preventive measures should include general measures to
improve environmental hygiene (e.g. through improved toilets, water, hygiene education, solid waste
disposal, burial of the dead, drainage of waste waters, and so on) of which the activities are described
in other chapters of this document.
Other preventive measures are specifically implemented for rodent control purposes only. They
sometimes aim at reducing the shelter or water factor but most are aimed at reducing access for the
rodents to buildings, especially food stores (this is also called ‘rodent proofing’). With regard to this it
should be taken into account that some rats can jump up to 75 cm and scramble higher if they get hold
of anything. Other rats can burrow 30 cm below ground and even much deeper sometimes, can jump
over long distances and can gnaw almost any material. Some of the specific preventive measures
against rodents are:
 Construction of a concrete curtain wall of 10 cm thick and at least 60 cm below ground with the
base turned out some 30 cm away from the building in the shape of an L to make foundations
rodent proof.
 Proper maintenance and operation of food stores, kitchens, food distribution sites and other places
were food can be found (through regular inspections, cleaning and sweeping of floors, proper waste
disposal, and so on).
 Ensuring that materials used in buildings are proof against gnawing by rodents and that all places
where rodents could make holes to enter a building are reinforced with rodent proof materials.
 Closure of all holes larger than 6 mm (the smallest hole that a young mouse can enter) with rodent
proof material such as metal plates, cement mortar, concrete. Places to check in particular, as it
may not be so obvious that they form potential entrances for rodents, are: gaps under doors, places
where pipes and cables pass through walls or foundation, and windows and other openings used for
ventilation.
 Construction of flat or cone-shaped metal climbing guards up drainpipes etc. They should be
placed sufficiently high to prevent rodents jumping beyond (and to avoid catching passing vehicles
and workers) and made wide enough to prevent the rodents climbing around them.
 Rodent proofing of roofs rodent and prevention of access through trees and cables leading to the
building.
 Application of smooth horizontal bands of cement at walls etc. painted with two coats of a high
gloss paint to deter rodents from climbing brickwork or stones; alternatively on wooden buildings a
strip of smooth metal sheeting can be applied. The bands should be about 20-30 cm wide and
should be applied not less than 1 m from the base of the outside wall.
 Insertion of drain traps in drain ways to prevent access through drains and sewers.
 Keeping doors closed and free of debris.
 Rodent infestations can effectively be discouraged if a cordon sanitaire of ground clear of weeds
and any possible harbourage is maintained around a building.
 Reduction and inspection of potential nesting sites such as discarded packaging, collections of
rubbish and stocks of firewood.
The identification of proofing needs and other specific measures for a building should lie with the
person responsible for rodent control at that site. The simple measures should best be undertaken by
the rodent control operator and/or the manager of the building.
////fig 12.1 page 282 CAB International 1994 ‘Rodent pests and their control’////
Chapter 6 : Vector control
p. 161
Figure .. Potential routes and sites of rodent entry into a storage facility
From CAB International, 1994
Important:
Control programs aiming to reduce rodent numbers should always be followed / combined with
preventive measures in order to prevent excessive rodent population growth in the future, especially
if the control measures taken to reduce the rodent numbers are of a temporary nature.
6.3.3 Trapping and hunting
Trapping and hunting are good options in case a rodent population is still small and confined to a
certain area11. Continued trapping or hunting can in such circumstances keep the rodent population in
the lower flat part of the curve in the graph. In many cases however the population is too large already.
Trapping/hunting will then only temporarily reduce the population until it arrives at a level where the
population is very productive (the steep part of the curve in the graph) as there will be more food,
water and shelter available than is used by the rodent population. This will cause the rodent population
to reproduce fast against which trapping and hunting can not compete. Another restriction of trapping
or hunting programs is that they often cause unintended and counter-effective results if people are paid
to eradicate the rodents. In camps near Goma for example a campaign to stimulate people to capture
and kill rats (people were paid a small sum per rat tail they brought to the programme) stimulated
people to breed rats so that they could easily make money by bringing many tails to the programme.
A rule of thumb is that for effective trapping the number of traps used should be 2 to 3 times the
estimated numbers of rodents present! Therefore trapping is only useful for:
 removal of a small number of rodents in food stores or domestic premises,
 where the carcasses are valued as food,
 control of a small population of large rodents, e.g. coypu rodents.
6.3.4 Chemical control measures
Chemical control methods usually include two components being executed after each other:
1. application of insecticides to kill the parasites carried by the rodents
2. application of rodenticides to kill the rodents
6.3.4.1 Chemical control of the parasites carried by rodents
//// to be worked on!!!//////
11
In buildings where other methods are ineffective sometimes also use is made of sticky traps or
glue boards, though this method is generally considered to be inhumane
Chapter 6 : Vector control
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6.3.4.2 Chemical rodent control with acute poisons
Acute (single-dose) poisons: consider prebaiting with non poisoned food to acustom the rodent to feed
on the same foodstuff at the same sites. The bait is easier and quicker to consume if it is slightly damp
The pattern of prebait uptake is usually one of gradual increase until, if the infestation is reasonably
circumscribed, a plateau of consumption is reached. This may take several days for mice and up to two
weeks for rats. The poison is then added to the bait and the poisoned bait laid in the same places, and
in the same containers, as the prebait. Usually the quantity put out need be only half that of prebait
consumed during the peceding 24 hours because the effect of the poison is quickly to curtail feeding.
The majority of poisoned bait consumption will be during the fist 24 hours of the treatment, and,
indeed, some authorities recommend that the duration of the poisoning phase should not extend
beyond this period. Some individuals may not feed consistently though during baiting programmes
and it may be advantageous to leave baits in position for two or three days, if it is safe to do so.
6.3.4.3 Chemical rodent control with anticoagulents (chronic or slow-acting poisons)
Anticoagulents are slow-acting poisons which means that it takes some time, usually somewhere
between 4 and 10 days, and usually several feedings, to cause death in rodents who have consumed
sufficient of the poisoned bait. The delay prevents rodents from associating the symptoms of toxicosis
with the anticoagulent and, therefore, bait shyness is unknown or much less of a problem than with
acute poisons. Generally anticoagulent rodenticides are preferred to acutes for reasons of efficacy and
safety.
Safety for humans
Because the functioning of anti-coagulents is based on interruption of the vitamin K cycle in the liver
it is easy to provide an effective antidose for use in case of accidental poisoning: the administration of
excess amounts of vitamin K1. Equally important, the chronic mode of action also allows enough time
for the antidote to be administered.
First generation anticoagulents
First generation anticoagulents must be taken repeatedly for several days to have sufficiently
prolonged effect to cause death. Therefore surplus baiting is needed for periods varying from several
days to several weeks (depending on the rodent species). Baiting continues until the cessation of
feeding which generally indicates that the infestation has been extinguished (called ‘saturation’ or
‘sustained’ baiting). Feeding on a bait should normally stop after 3-5 weeks. If feeding continues after
this period this means that the poison or bait is not effective or new rodents have infested the area. The
cause should then be investigated and more effective measures developed. Such measures may include
extension of the area being baited, change of the bait, change of the poison, or putting more emphasis
to other control measures.
Bait should be placed in small piles (100-200 g for rats and 25 g for mice) where rodents will easily
find it and before they reach food stocks. Rodents begin to die after about 1 week when there should
be a reduction in feeding. Mice can be more difficult to control than rats. They sample small amounts
of food from different sources so a large number of bait sites is usually more effective for mice
control.
First generation anticoagulents are effective against most rodent species although long periods of
baiting may be required in some cases (Norway rat about 6 days, Rattus Rattus about 21 days).
Warfarin is a much used first generation anticoagulent (very effective against Norway rat, but in
Europe and the United States rodents become more and more resistent against it). Warfarin for rats
and mice: dose 250 ppm or 0,025% active warfarin (250 ppm (0,025%) = 1 part of 0,5% concentrate
to 19 parts of bait). Use a mixture of 0,025% warfarin and 0,1% calciferol against mice.
Where the newer anticoaglents are not available or are considered too expensive, warfarin and similar
older anticoagulents are still widely used. They can be effective for at least occasional use if in
palatable formulations and if used in areas where resistance to them has not been a problem. They
Chapter 6 : Vector control
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will, however, require considerably more volume of bait and greater efforts to maintain bait points for
the multiple feedings required.
Second generation anticoagulents
Advantages above first generation anticoagulents
effective against both warfarin susceptible and resistant
rodents
less bait needed
Disadvantages
attention must be given to apply the right
amount of bait at each 'pulse' (see below)
the poison is more expensive than first
generation anticoagulents
no bait shyness ///(while there may sometimes be bait
shyness with first generation anticoagulents ????)///
some second generation anticoagulents are less toxic to
non-target animals than to rodents
Small quantities of second generation anticoagulent treated bait should be applied at approximately
weekly intervals. Dominant animals consume the baits completely over a short period of time, and die
before another application of bait is laid for animals that were earlier prevented from taking the bait
(sometimes rodents who consumed the poisoned bait die within a day). Further baits are subsequently
applied weekly until the population is fully controlled. This system is called 'pulsed baiting'.
Difenacoum is a widely used second generation anticoagulent, used in baits containing 0,005% of the
active ingredient (trade names: Ratak, Neosorexa). Average duration of treatment: 32 days, with 8
visits to obtain control of 96% average level of control, 146 grams eaten per bait point on average.
Another widely used second generation anticoagulent is Brodifacoum which is effective against all
common commensal and agricultural rodent pests. Treatment: 22 days, 100% control, 6 visits, average
consumption: 82 grams of bait per bait point. Pellets, wax blocks and cereal baits containing 0,005%
Brodifacoum are available under the trade names 'Klerat', 'Talon', 'Havoc', and 'Matikus'.
Bromadioline is another much used second generation anticoagulent.
////??In urgent situations such as rodent caused disease outbreaks second generation anticoagulents are
preferrable because they do not require repeated feedings and are thus specially useful where
competing foodstuffs can not be eliminated or bait maintained or serviced over long periods (as is
needed for Warfarin and similar first generation anticoagulents).?? p. 264 of CAB International,
1994///
6.3.4.4 Bait
Both acute and slow-action poisons are added to bait. Baits should be made out of high quality cereal.
Maize oil can be added to make the bait more attratctive to the rodents. Many treated baits are
delivered ready for use (can be used as bait without any further additions). Often they are coloured to
prevent poeple from sampling and eating them. Pellets are preferred indoors and where the bait is
deployed in bait boxes (disadvantages: poor weatherability and hazard to birds). Wax blocks are
preferred baits. Although they are somwhat less palatable to rodents than those based entirely on
cereals they are safer to non-target animals, more easy to apply and less weatherable. Therefore they
are more suitable also for outside use, in damp locations as sewers, rodent burrows and for permanent
baiting in bait boxes.
There are now baits which contain the human taste deterrent denatonium benzoate (tradename 'Bitrex')
which is highly repellent to humans when included in baits at a strength of 0,001% but does not deter
their consumption by rodents. The incorporation of this compound is unlikely to decrease the
frequency of accidental exposure of humans to baits but it will help to reduce the quantity of bait
accidentally consumed, and, thereby, the clinical severity of these incidents.
Bait stations are small boxes in which bait can be placed. They reduce the likelihood of bait spillage,
help to keep the bait in good condition, provide a sheltered environment in which rodents can feed,
Chapter 6 : Vector control
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preclude access to the bait by non-target animals larger than the rodents, above all, they preclude
access to the bait by humans to a certain extent. Potential disadvantage: they may alter rodent
behaviour and delay station utilization. They are also expensive.
Bait should be placed in burrows or otherwise out of sight in populated areas. However, in camps
people will find the bait anywhere and therefore if bait needs to be used outside confined areas
additional measures to secure safety may be needed, such as:
 the use of durable bait stations
 hiring people to watch over the bait and protect it from theft or vandalism
///figure 11.2 page 260 of CAB International, 1994: Rodent pests and their control/////
Figure .. Bait station
From CAB International, 1994
6.3.4.5 Recommendations for safety in chemical rodent control programs
Dangers of chemical rodent control programs
 In camps people may eat dead rodents. If the rodents are poisoned the people will be
poisoned too!
 In camps people may eat the baiting material meant to poison the rodents if they find it
and be poisoned through that!
 In camps people may mistake the white insecticide powders used to kill parasites hosted
by the rodents for flour and eat it and be poisoned through that!
 The poisons may be dangerous to the staff applying them!
To improve safety in chemical rodent control programs the following measures are needed:
1. Develop the program with the assistance of an expert.
2. Restrict the program as much as possible to confined areas of the camp which are under
strict control (e.g. in foodstores).
3. Execute a publicity campaign and warnings for the public. Principally chemical rodent control
should not be executed in areas where rats are or may be expected to be used as food, but even if
the control program is executed in confined areas only, some poisoned rodents may escape before
dying and be found and eaten by people.
Chapter 6 : Vector control
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4. Execute the program with skilled staff and train them to (further) raise their skills and
awareness with respect to the poisons used and make sure they work safely. Staff should wear
protective plastic or rubber gloves and dust masks when preparing baits as some poisons can
penetrate the skin. The poisons should not be inhaled. Staff should wear gloves and take care when
handling rodent corpses.
5. Ensure proper disposal/destruction of poisoned rodent carcasses. Make absolutely sure that
people can not come into contact with the carcasses or eat them: incinerate them or bury them in a
deep hole.
6. Whenever possible use the less hazardous chronic anticoagulent poisons. These must be
consumed for several days before they are effective and are therefore less dangerous (having a less
poisonous effect after only one consumption and leaving more time to find medical help if
poisoned).
7. Execute an awareness campaign among curative health personnel. Increases awareness about
the possibility that people with symptoms of poisoning by rodenticides or parasites may attend their
health centres, how to diagnose this and how to treat the poisoned people properly,
8. provide effective antidotes to the health centres (antidotes are medicines that can be used to
neutralize //some of??/// the effects of rodenticides in case people are poisoned with them; e.g.
Vitamin K; see also further on).
9. At the end of a campaign collect the remaining bait and incinerate or bury it.
6.3.5 Rodent control in food stores
In camps many rodent control activities will usually be directed to controlling rodents in food stores.
In food stores the aim usually is 100% elimination of the rodent population. As preventive measures
alone can often not fully achieve this chemical measures are needed in many cases. The bait should be
so attractive to the rodents that they prefer it above the food stored. Anticoagulents are the best
chemical for this purpose as the rodents will be able to take several feeds without starting to feel ill
and bring this into connection with the bait (leading to bait shyness). Even if feeding is not (yet) lethal
this will not lead to bait shyness.
The use of open bait points without trays (??) is probably best for effective control., but safety
constraints may require the use of protected bait points such as covered trays or boxes in order to
prevent access by non-target animals and/or humans. The bait points should be placed where rodents
have been found to be active. Use of an unpoisoned water source adjacent to a bait point may increase
bait intake from that point.
In addition to preventive measures discussed earlier food stores should always include the following
preventive measures:
1. Inside the store all equipment and material that is not required for the working of the store should
be removed. Materials that have to remain should be stored neatly, preferrably in manageable
stacks, but never against walls, which would make inspection and survey for rodents difficult.
2. A walkable space of about 1 m should be left around the edge of all stacks.
3. Position all materials on pallets, shelving or racking off the ground.
4. Ideally the stacks should be surrounded by a thin strip of chalk, dust or fine sand (see Figure ...
below) to show rodent footprints which can be used to identify if and where additional rodent
control measures are needed.
5. Ensure good stock management and stock rotation.
6. Keep the store clean and tidy: sweep the store clean at the end of every working day, remove or
burn all edible and inedible spillage.
7. Outside the store remove all unnecessary material, don’t allow any edible refuse to accumulate and
keep vegetation as short as possible for as large a distance from the store as is practicle to
discourage rodents.
8. Ideally the responsibility for both the store management and the rodent control should lie with the
same trained manager, thus reducing the opportunity for any conflict of interest.
Chapter 6 : Vector control
p. 166
//Fig 12.2 page 286 of CAB International, 1994./////
Figure ..
Tracking bands of fine sand or similar material can be placed around susceptible
goods to show rodent tracks.
From CAB International, 1994
6.3.6 Sequence of activities
Beside the building up of managerial expertise and training of staff rodent control strategies usually
include the following activities:
 Survey to identify the severity of the rodent problems and develop the most suitable rodent
control program (usually started after initial signs of rodent problems which are often identified
through informal information channels as described in chapter 3). A survey usually aims to identify
numbers and sorts of rodents, sorts of damage/diseases caused by the rodents, rodent proofing
needs of food stores and other buildings, causes of the rodent infestation (e.g. poor hygiene, easy
acces to food, etc.), potential of different control measures (also taking into account that due to
such measures behaviour and activity patterns of the rodents may change rendering the measures
less effective). The survey should also provide the information basis for the evaluation afterwards
of the effectivity of the control efforts. A survey and the preparation of a rodent control program
should preferrably be executed by an expert.
 Application of rodent control measures (preventive measures, trapping, hunting, chemical
measures; see former paragraphs in this chapter)
 Maintenance of activities (e.g. with anticoagulent treatments bait points should be visited
regularly, once to twice a week, to replace bait, record activity, adapt treatment if necessary etc..; as
a rule of thumb, treatments may be terminated once there have been two visits without a bait take
and when no other indications of current activity can be found).
 Monitoring to continuously know (and be able to react on) the status of rodent infestation, safety
aspects, efficiency and so on (this element is further worked out in the following paragraphs)
 Evaluation (regarding cost-benefit evaluations, a common characteristic of rodent control
programs, especially those executed in stores, is that significant cost:benefits, varying from 1:2 to
1:51, have been reported even where original losses due to rodents were low).
6.3.7 monitoring aspects of rodent control programs
As monitoring aspects of preventive measures are already discussed in other chapters, this
paragraph pays attentiononly to the monitoring aspects of trapping and chemical rodent control
programs.
In the US several methods are used to discover actual or potential rodent problems. Two main
methods are neighbourhood surveys where neighbourhoods are investigated and rated for their rodent
threat potential, and complaint/response programs where monitoring in principle is done by the public
who warn the specific authorities dealing with rodents in case of rodent problems. It was found that
the complaint/response programs were more cost-effective. It is therefore recommended to use this as
a monitoring as well as an executional tool in camps too. Important is that if complaints about rodents
start to come in all people are informed that they can present rodent problems to the program and that
an administration is kept of the locations where rodents are reported to be a problem.
Chapter 6 : Vector control
p. 167
6.3.7.1 Monitoring of trapping programs
A typical organisational structure for a rodent control programme in a camp which uses rodent
trapping is as follows:
6.3.7.2 Monitoring of chemical rodent control programs
A typical organisational structure for a rodent control programme in a camp which uses rodenticides
and insecticides is as follows:
Measuring efficacy of the rodent control program:
Measure at least two times: one just before the beginning of the treatment and one at the end of the
treatment. However, when analysing the results at the end of the program always take into account that
there may have been other factors other than the rodenticide that caused the rodent population size to
fluctuate.
Measuring methods that can be used to get an indication of the efficacy of the rodent control program:
visual counting:
1. scanning from a fixed point (mainly for species active during the day)
2. walk a predetermined route (mainly for species active during the night; use a spotlight)
Do it the same time of the day or night by the same observer. To obtain a good representative value
make at least three seperate counts to obtain a single index value (to average out all kinds of variations
that may influence the numbers observed) and try to do the concequtive countings during days or
nights when circumstances are comparable (esp. aim to count under the same wheather conditions and
without any adverse conditions)
signs
1. Counts of active burrows for rodents who live in burrows (close burrows with soil or other material
at beginning of treatment and count the number reopened at the end to be the final level of rodent
activity). May not be accurate where rodents do not all live in burrows.
2. Counts of mounts for burrows who make mounts
3. Opening of breathing holes in snow.
4. Dropping counts: clear predetermined areas of droppings and count new pellets that accumulate
during a given unit of time, or else use dropping boards.
Tracks
Chapter 6 : Vector control
p. 168
Lay patches or plates of flour, sand, talc, chalk etc. in placves where rodnts are considered likely to be
active. Count number of places with rodent footprints or e.g. intensity of food printing at places.
Because of variation in rodent activity, in relation to factors such as wheather, record for three or more
seperate days in order to obtain a single index of activity. Possible biases: surviving animals expand
their home ranges therefore marking more areas and due tot hat efficacy of the treatment may be
under-estimated.Also the efficacy may be underestimated because the more wide-ranging rodents are
most likely to succumb first leaving animals who walk less and thus give an underestimation of the
population still alive in comparison to the situation before treatment started. These errors can be
minimized if plates/patches are correctly placed. They should be not only be laid in association with
bait points or bait stations but be placed independent of bait stations at a predetermined density (read
Quy et al., 1993).
Food consumption
Make unpoisoned food (which is different from the bait used in terms of appearance, taste, texture and
location) available and record consumption in a standard way before and after treatment, giving a
measue of the change in rodent activity. There should be a lag period between the end of census
baiting and the beginning of the treatment (for rats: pretreatment lag period of 14 days and a post
treatment lag period of 7 days). The census baiting periods should be at least 4 days.
An alternative is to persist with census baiting until daily consumption has leevelled off and take this
asymptotic consumption as the census index.
EPA guideline: at least 70% absolute efficacy must be demonstrated by two independent techniques
and no more than one rodent should be caught for every snap traps set at the end of the teatments.
Indicators recommended for rodent control programs
(warning: first kill the vectors hosted by the rodents, and only then kill the rodents)
Indicator
numbers or amount of rodenticide baits placed
numbers of traps placed
materials and consumables used and in stock
percentage of area invested with or threatened by rodents covered
by baits and/or traps
number of buildings that should be physically protected against
rodents
number of buildings physically protected against rodents
numbers or signs of rodents observed/trapped/poisoned in
buildings physically protected against rodents
financial indicators
numbers of rodents killed and numbers of rodents alive
incidence rates of diseases caused by the vectors targeted by the
rodent control programme
Description
See par. ..
See par. ...
See par. 3....
See par. ...
The buildings where such
protection measures are
needed
The buildings where such
protection measures have
been executed
See par. ...
See par. 3...
See par. ....
See par. 3...
6.3.8 Recommended literature
CAB International. 1994. Rodent pests and their control. Edited by A.P. Buckle and R.H. Smith.
Chapter 6 : Vector control
p. 169
Davis J. and Lambert R. 1995. Engineering in emergencies. A practical guide for relief workers.
RedR. IT publication.
Thomson, M.C. 1995. Disease prevention through vector control. Guidelines for relief organisations.
Oxfam practical health guide no. 10.
Par. ..Incidence rates of diseases caused by the vectors targeted by the
control programme
///Opmerkingen: 1) enkele van deze ziektes kunnen ook heel andere oorzaken hebben en vaak wordt er
in de statistieken geen onderscheid naar oorzaak gemaakt (hetgeen vaak ook niet mogelijk is omdat de
oorzaak van een ziekte in een kliniek vaak moeilijk te bepalen is); het is dan moeilijk te bepalen uit de
statistieken welk deel door vectors en welk deel door andere oozaken wordt veroorzaakt. 2) Van veel
ziektes worden geen statistieken bijgehouden (ze worden of op een grote hoop gegooid zoals
verkoudheid, of ze worden geregistreerd onder een kopje undetermined o.i.d.). 3) vaak zijn statistieken
niet goed bijgehouden///////
If you are new in the area and/or do not have good information about vectors in the camps under your
management you will first have to get a general idea about the vectors prevalent in the camp and the
seriousness of these vectors. You can do this by starting with a simple assessment which includes:
1)
asking your predecessor, people who work in the curative health and the food programme(s)
in the camp about vectors in the camp and the diseases, damage and inconveniences they cause (but be
careful about misconceptions; people often tend to overemphasize problems related to subjects they
are asked about),
2)
asking local leaders and other key persons as well as the camp inhabitants what problems they
have (see par. ...) anmd assess from their answers whether vectors are a problem perceived by them,
3)
reading existing reports,
4)
analysing health statistics (get an idea about the importance of vectors in the diseases reported;
look at the development of vector-borne diseases in time, assess the vector-borne diseases in the camp
against such diseases present in the hosting area).
If this does not give you a reasonable good idea, then carry out a thorough assessment (see Annex ....
for examples on how this can be done). Preferrably get an entomologist to carry out the survey for
you.
If you get a strong idea through this assessment that one or a number of vectors are serious causes of
disease, damage and/or inconveniences, then an entomologist should preferrably be contracted to
further investigate the problems and recommend the remedial activities needed.
A few standards which you can use in your judgement whether activities in the field of vector control
are needed:
Disease
High incidence Low incidence
(action needed) (no action needed)
Malaria in Africa
.....
.....
Malaria in Asia
Sleeping sickness (Trypanosomiasis)
Scabies
River blindness
Fevers other than malaria
Diarrhoea
Remarks:
Chapter 6 : Vector control
p. 170
1)
The diseases marked with * are always fully vector-borne. The diseases not marked with *
may be be wholly or partly caused by vectors or by other factors (the causes, thus also the extent to
which vetors are involved, will then have to be assessed if the disease incidence is high)
2)
control whether the statistics are correct. If high incidence of malaria is suspected or indicted
in the health statistics make sure that you proof it is really malaria (through blood tests) before you
start with massive spraying, bednet programmes, drainage campaigns or other activities. If a lot of
fever is reported try to find out what the causes are, to what extent they are vector-borne. If high
diarrhoea figures are reported find out if vectors are involved and to what extent.
3)
Be aware that the above figures are very rough. They should only be used as an indication.
There are many exceptions.
The indicators that should regularly be measured to know whether a vector programme should be
started
1)
Look at the developments in the health statistics (you can use the above table to assess
whether action is needed or decide for action even before high incidence levels are reached, when
certain vector borne diseases show a sharp increase in incidence).
2)
Observation of vector populations:
Mosquitoes:
Method of measurement:
High level:
Low level:
Intensity of measuring: only when mosquitoe-borne disease levels are rising and/or when
during the regular monitoring walks (see par. ) high mosquitoe densities (which means significant
rises in a number of places in comparison to former walks) are detected, it is necessary to analyse
which the mosquitoe sorts are (see Annex ....; is Appendix 3 in Thomson,s book) and measure the
presence levels of each mosquitoe sort with the above method. Start measuring once a month and
continue with this as long as the situation is significantly changing.
Measuring mosquitoes during the monitoring walks:
count the number of mosquitoes in the 5 randomly chosen huts (where you also carry out all the other
measurements as desribed in par. ...), or in more huts (according to your own judgement and the
monitoring capacity in your programme) in different parts of the camp.
flies:
tsetse flies
Every week: with the health statistics available assess whether diseases prevalent are vector-borne and
which percentage of the diseases they cause in the camp.
7.2
General indicators for spraying activities
*
Indicators about staff and users safety
*
Indicators about amounts of chemicals used
*
Indicators about numbers of facilities, households, areas sprayed.
7.3
Indicators specific for the control of mosquitoes
7.4
Indictors specific for the control of flies, .. and ...
7.5
Indicators specific for the control of rats
7.10
Recommendations for periodical and final evaluations
Literature used specifically in this chapter:
1. Disease prevention through vector control; guidelines for relief organisations. Liverpool School of
Tropical Medicine. Madeleine Thompson. OXFAM practical health guide no. 10.
2. Public health engineering in emergency situation; a handbook for implementing health programmes
in deprived environments, in particular in camps of displaced persons. 1st edition. Medecins Sans
Frontieres.
3. Evaluation report of the OXFAM environmental health programme in Kibeho camp, January April 1995. Tom de Veer. Kigali, May 1995.
4. Malaria. Principles and practise of malariology. Edited by W.H. Wernsdorfer and Sir I. McGregor.
Volume 2. Churchill Livingstone.
Chapter 6 : Vector control
p. 171
7.
Hygiene promotion
7.1Introduction.
In many circumstances people’s poor hygiene behavior is a threat to their health. To facilitate
that people become aware of this and improve their hygiene behavior a hygiene promotion
program can be executed. Usually this is done in combination with drinking water and other
sanitation programs to optimize the effects.
The recommended minimum objective of a hygiene promotion program is:
To facilitate the targeted beneficiaries, through the execution of appropriate hygiene
promotion methods, to improve their hygiene behavior, in accordance with the below
specifications, in accordance with the facilities available to them and in accordance with
their social, cultural and religious habits, beliefs and preferences.
Specifications for the recommended minimum objective of a hygiene promotion program
Situation
Emergency
Non-emergency
Subject
Hygiene behaviors
needed
75% of people drink water from sources with acceptable quality
water (water for other uses, e.g. washing clothes and dishes,
personal cleanliness etc. may be used from contaminated sources)
60% of people wash hands after going to the toilet and before
eating and cooking (with soap or ashes)
The 3 to 4 most important hygiene
behaviors identified to need attention
should be improved among 80 to 90%
of the people (see Box ... for an
example list of hygiene behaviors that
often need to be promoted in camps)
80% of people defecate only in the areas or facilities designated
for this.
(depending on the specific situation other hygiene behaviors may
be more important).
Information needed
ensure that all key information needed to prevent the most
threatening diseases is promoted to people
ensure that all information needed to
prevent most diseases present or
potentially present in the camp is
promoted to people
Number of hygiene
promoters
1 per 1,500 to 2,500 people
1 per 1,000 persons or per 200 families
Number of well
organized/prepared
group meetings
none
1 per two to three days per hygiene
promoter
Number of household
visits or small group
discussions
100 short discussions with small groups per hygiene promoter per
day
6 to 12 household visits per hygiene
promoter per day
Chapter 7 : Hygiene promotion
p. 151
The hygiene promotion program discussed here has the following organogram:
Other programs
Manager of hygiene promotion program
Field administrator
of the field stock
Office administrator
Office logisticien
Hygiene promotion teams with:
team leaders, and
hygiene promotors
Figure 7.1 Organogram of the hygiene promotion program described in this chapter.
The main task of hygiene promotion teams is to promote hygiene in the area under their
responsibility and feed back to the program about the results and the experiences,
including recommendations for improvements.
Chapter 7 : Hygiene promotion
p. 152
7.2Hygiene promoters
Hygiene promoters work together with the camp inhabitants on the improvement of hygiene.
Their role is to function as a two way information channel between the program and the
beneficiaries and vice versa. They apply methods to promote improved hygiene behavior among
the people and in the same time obtain information about the hygiene behaviors that need
improvement, the reasons why people practice poor hygiene behaviors, the effectiveness of the
hygiene promotion program and further improvements needed.
Hygiene promoters also assess with the people sometimes what other problems people face,
even if these have nothing to do with hygiene issues, and feed this information back to the
managers of the involved programs.
Because of their close contacts with the beneficiaries and the absolute necessity for a relation of
trust and respect with them it is preferable that hygiene promoters are members of the target
population themselves. The best way to assure such a relation is to have hygiene promoters
being chosen by the beneficiaries. How this can be realized even within a very short time is
explained in Box 7.1. If time is really too short for this (e.g. if hygiene messages need to be
transmitted within hours in order to save lives) one can recruit hygiene promoters by asking
around for people who are respected by their communities and who are capable of
communicating hygiene messages to their people (don’t offer a salary in first instance, only
some small incentives such as a piece of soap).
Tools/materials needed per hygiene promoter:
One pen, one notebook, hygiene promotion materials as required (depending on the methods
used)
For each team there should preferably also be a megaphone with sufficient batteries.
Number of hygiene promoters needed:
Emergencies: one hygiene promoter per 1500 to 2500 persons.
Non-emergencies: one hygiene promoter per 1000 persons or per 200 families.
Especially in non-emergencies hygiene promoters will be organized as teams. A hygiene
promotion team often consists of 8 to 12 hygiene promoters and one team leader. The hygiene
promoters of one team often assist each other. The team regularly meets to discuss the specific
problems in their part of the camp.
Chapter 7 : Hygiene promotion
p. 153
Tasks during emergencies:
Task
Description
Timing
Specifications
important for
execution of
the task
Communicat
e hygiene
messages
quickly to
people
Promote short, simple and strong hygiene messages
with short and simple explanations to as many people
as possible as quick as possible (e.g. in case of cholera
threat say ‘don’t drink from the lake: it will make you
sick and you may die because of it. You can use it for
washing and bathing but get your drinking water from
the tap by the health center’).
continuousl
y
100 short
discussions with
small groups per
hygiene promoter
per day about the
hygiene behaviors
to be promoted
During
emergencies
or periods
with sudden
large developments:
timing
depends on
situation,
needs etc.
See paragraph
3.3.4.4
Contact leaders to convince them to communicate the
same messages to their people.
Feed-back to the manager about the reactions of people
and whether people actually follow-up the advise given
to them.
Assist in
mass
meetings
To prepare the meeting:
1. Discuss with others involved about the need of the
meeting and the subject(s) to be dealt with.
2. Visit community leaders to inform them about the
meeting, the time and location, and the purpose.
3. Go around to invite people to come to the meeting
and explain them shortly what it is about.
During the meeting:
1. Explain arriving people where they can sit or stand
2. Assist with translation if necessary (make sure to
have the megaphone available)
3. If you are asked to do so, make notes of the things
said.
See chapter 3 for a detailed description of this method.
Assist in the
training of
new hygiene
promoters
If needed take new hygiene promoters with you,
discuss with them the relations between hygiene and
health by asking them questions and explaining things
when necessary. Let them observe you and assist you
during your work. If they can write, they can make
notes of meetings etc.
Whenever
asked by
team leader,
supervisor
or manager.
Execute
population
census
Count households
once every
one to two
weeks
Chapter 7 : Hygiene promotion
p. 154
See paragraph
3.4.1. Counting
is done only by
a few hygiene
promoters
possibly
together with
(some)
sanitation
workers
Tasks during non-emergencies:
Task
Description
Timing
Specifications
important for execution of the task
Facilitate
focus
group
discussion
s
Meet with 6 to 15 beneficiaries to discuss relevant hygiene issues.
Work alone or together with another hygiene promoter.
one focus
group
discussion
per hygiene
promoter per
two to three
days
See the description of
focus group discussions
in paragraph 3.3.4.2.
5 to 12
households
per hygiene
promoter per
day if no
other
activities are
undertaken
See paragraph 3.3.4.1
and Box 7.2.
Find out what the real reasons are for people to perform poor
hygiene behavior (is their current behavior caused by a lack of
knowledge, by cultural or socially based norms/habits/believes, a
lack of possibilities to perform improved hygiene behavior or other
causes?).
If applicable, inform people during these meetings about existing
programs set up to enable them to create possibilities for improved
hygiene behavior and ask them to feed-back their experiences with
these programs to the involved staff or to the hygiene promoters.
Discuss hygiene issues with household members (esp. women).
Visit
household Also talk with them about their needs and priorities in general. Get
a feeling for their knowledge, attitudes and practices with regard to
s
the relevant hygiene behaviors.
Feed-back to the supervisor and program manager to what extent
the messages of the program fit to the perceived needs of the people
and to their knowledge, attitudes and practices with regard to
hygiene behaviors and recommend how the program can be
improved.
Pay special attention to
the way of discussing
hygiene behaviors with
people. Be careful not to
create a feeling that you
condemn them for their
poor behaviors but
analyze together what
their views are with
regard to certain
behaviors. For a good
understanding read Box
7.2 about the principles
of KAP first!
Inform people also about the existing programs set up to enable
them to create possibilities for improved hygiene behavior.
Facilitate
open
group
discussion
s
Groups of 10 to 20 participants. Discuss with people what their
general needs are (not restricted to sanitation issues) and feed back
to the supervisor and managers involved in the subjects brought
forward. Often this is done to get a general idea of the problems
people are facing, and the priority people give to these problems.
This will also give an impression about the priority people give to
sanitation aspects in comparison to other aspects (usually priority
for sanitation is low). The discussion can be followed by a focus
group discussion. Be careful for the danger that people will expect
follow-up on the problems brought forward (communicate very
clearly to people what they can expect from your program).
whenever
believed
necessary
Subjects decided on by
the participants
Facilitate
workshop
s
A workshop is a topic focussed group activity where people work
together through discussions and actions towards a certain result,
usually with regard to the development of something new.
whenever
believed
necessary,
often in
coordination
with other
programs
Subjects and method
(open discussion or
workshop) can be
decided on by the
beneficiaries, or the
hygiene promoters or
others depending on the
situation. See Appendix
14 for some examples of
participative techniques
and the principles of
PRA.
Methods can include:
1) Map drawing by the beneficiaries of their area and other
participative techniques where people work themselves on certain
things. The activities usually stimulate people to discuss things and
come forward with their needs, priorities, feelings about different
programs in the camp, what they can do themselves to improve the
situation etc.
2) Building together with the people a facility (e.g. a shower, a
toilet, a tapstand, and so on) and discuss things in the same time in
order to develop an optimal design (can best be done at a place
where many people pass by so that everybody is stimulated to take
part in the works and discussions).
Chapter 7 : Hygiene promotion
p. 155
Tasks during non-emergencies (continued):
Task
Description
Execute
household
surveys
Timing
Specifications
important for
execution of the
task
every 3 - 6
months.
Coordinate
with other
teams and
supervisor
See Box 7.7.
Execute in 0.3% of
all households with
a minimum of 20
(ad random selection; see Box 7.9)
Execute
populatio
n census
Count households.
once every
one to three
months
Done only by part
of the hygiene
promoters possibly
together with
sanitation workers.
See par. 3.4.1
Execute
other
hygiene
promotio
n
methods
Other methods of hygiene promotion may be: radio programs, theatre,
puppet plays, promotion through posters etc.
timing
depends on
program
design
See Box 7.10 for
some examples.
Execute
structure
d
continuou
s observations
Additional remarks specific for continuous hygiene behavior
observations in households:
* Only observe in households where the behaviors play a role (e.g. only
observe defecation by children in households that do have children)
Once every
three
months.
See paragraph 3.3.2
for explanation of
the method. To be
executed in about
0.2 to 0.5% of the
households with a
minimum of 15 (ad
random selection;
see Box 7.9)
* Ask the families for their permission and explain that you are trying to
find out about health problems
* If people don’t want to participate, thank them and try the next hut
* Observe for a standard period, e.g. from 6 to 9 am each morning
* Develop and test the observation format and revise them to suit the
circumstances. Use the same methodology as for developing, testing and
revising household surveys (see Box 7.7). In the same way make a list of
written instructions for how to carry out the observations.
* Arrive at the household at getting up time, greet people politely and then
sit down in an inconspicuous corner (if possible) where you can see what
is going on
* Keep conversation to a minimum
* Try to obtain a feeling for whether people have changed their behavior
because there is an observer present (comment on this in your report)
* Make a report of each household visited: note down the results of the
observations done as according to the format and list, including any
additional remarks believed important.
* Meet regularly with other hygiene promoters, team leader and supervisor
to discuss specific problems or observations done
Other possible places to do structured continuous observations with
regard to hygiene behaviors are:
* Toilets (e.g. to determine what percentage of people wash hands after
toilet use, e.g. at public toilets where washing facilities are available)
* Water collection points (to determine for instance whether people use
clean containers for carrying water, how many people wash themselves at
the water point and how many use soap etc.)
Chapter 7 : Hygiene promotion
p. 156
Coordinate
with other
teams and
supervisor.
Tasks during non-emergencies (continued):
Task
Description
Timing
Assist in the
training of
new hygiene
promoters
If needed take new hygiene promoters with you, discuss with them the
relations between hygiene and health by asking them questions and
explaining things when necessary. Let them observe you and assist you
during your work. If they can write, they can make notes of meetings
etc.
Whenever
asked by
team
leader,
supervisor,
manager
Fill in weekly
report
together with
the team at
the end of the
week
To be able to fill in correctly each hygiene promoter should note down
for himself each day the numbers of home visits and focus group
discussions done (if things are done with two hygiene promoters then
note down as one activity not as two!).
at the end
of every
week
Specifications
important for
execution of the
task
See Form 7.1.
///remark with regard to handwashing after toilet use observations: very often there are no hand
washing facilities by public latrines and certainly no soap (will then probably be stolen). another
possibility is to observe at private latrines, only then longer observation times are needed and
much less numbers of people will be observed to go in and out the latrine, therefore probably
more latrines will have to be observed. Possible problems: 1) if people see the observer they
may start to act differently as they usually do (washing their hands while normally they don’t do
that), 2) it may be difficult to observe whether people wash hands if the latrine is a bot far from
the shelter and/or if people wash their hands inside so that it is difficult to see whether they
really wash their hands. Some field trials definitely are needed for this//////////////
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p. 157
Form 7.1
Example of report form to be filled in each week by each hygiene
promotion team. (for non-emergencies)
Country:______________ Date:______________ Camp:_________________
Name of team:_____________ Camp part under team’s responsibility:_________
Number of hygiene promoters
(including team leader)
Did all hygiene promoters work
all the work days (if not, explain
who and why)
Total number of working days by
the team (including team leader)
How many households were
visited for short discussions
How many focus group
discussions were held with how
many people all together
Describe other activities undertaken and the results (e.g. other
promotion methods, structured
observations done, trainings
followed or trainings given, etc.)
Formulate the main problems
encountered with regard to
hygiene promotion or related
subjects
Formulate the main problems the
people are experiencing in
general, including the priorities of
the people with regard to these
problems (thus not necessarily
hygiene or sanitation problems)
Formulate your ideas about how
the hygiene promotion program
could be improved
Chapter 7 : Hygiene promotion
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Box 7.1 Example of a method for the selection of hygiene promoters by the
beneficiaries themselves
Minimum time needed: two days.
1. Contact the beneficiaries and ask them to come in a meeting to talk about selecting a hygiene
promoter among them.
2. Ask people what they think the work of a hygiene promoter will be (stimulate people to talk
about different hygiene problems in the community, about the need for hygiene promotion
etc.)
3. Let people discuss among them what the criteria should be of a person who will work as a
hygiene promoter (usually criteria should come up as: the person should be respected and
trusted in the community, should be chosen from within the community, should be
communicative, able to understand and explain hygiene issues, etc.). Make sure that during
the discussion also attention is given to the fact that many hygiene issues are more important
for women. Ask for instance ‘Who are mostly involved in fetching water?’, ‘Who take care of
cleaning the house?’, ‘Who clean the baby’s bottoms and cleans the ground where they have
defecated?’, etc. Then ask people what they think about a man or a woman being a hygiene
promoter (does not necessarily have to lead to a conclusion that hygiene promoters should be
women, but stimulates people to think about this
4. Invite persons who are interested to work as a hygiene promoter to put themselves forward as
a candidate (hopefully the discussion has encouraged at least some women to put themselves
forward as a candidate: the facilitator can stimulate this by proposing if necessary that at least
a few of the candidates should be women).
5. Make an appointment with the people for a next meeting which will be to choose the hygiene
promoter (preferably the next day) and ask people to stimulate as many people as possible
from the concerned area to turn up.
6. In the next meeting the facilitator should repeat the criteria brought forward by the people in
the last meeting concerning the kind of person they would like to choose as a hygiene
promoter.
7. The candidates should step forward and present themselves shortly to the people, explaining
why they feel they are suitable as a hygiene promoter.
8. The people are asked to stand behind the person of their choice.
9. After some time, when everybody has made their choice, the numbers of persons behind each
candidate should be counted. The winner is the candidate with most persons behind him or
her.
10. In case two candidates have the same number of persons behind them, people should do the
same exercise again with only the remaining candidates until one candidate is chosen.
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Box 7.2 The principles of KAP
KAP stands for Knowledge, Attitude, Practice
These three words indicate the process that should theoretically lead to good behavior. The idea is that first
people should know about the background and needs of the behavior. Then they will have to become
convinced about the advantages of the behavior and become motivated to really practice it. Then, if they are
motivated to practice the behavior, they should also be able, i.e. have the time and resources (access to
facilities needed for the behavior etc.), to practice it. In this box we will show the importance and in the
same time the complexity of the KAP principle.
Knowledge
First, if people don’t know about the backgrounds and need for a certain behavior (why is it important), they
will not practice it. So, if people don’t know, the first thing to work on is to provide them with this
knowledge (e.g. to let them discuss the issue with others and let them find out together the why of certain
things, and, if necessary, explaining to them additional knowledge; see further paragraph 3.3.4.2 about
‘focus group discussions’). For instance, if people don’t know that bacteria that come on the hands after
cleaning one’s bottom can transmit disease to them and others, people will have to obtain knowledge first of
all about what diseases are, how such diseases can be transmitted and how this can be prevented.
However, it is important to know exactly what knowledge is lacking and how people use the new knowledge
within their existing framework of knowledge, perceptions and habits. People will not so easily change this
framework as it is usually based on a mix of habits, perceptions and beliefs (some of which are centuries
old), and on their own practical experiences, all very much related often to the social, cultural and religious
values and pressures in their societies. A few examples to further clarify this:
A woman living in a town in Burkina Faso was observed to take away the excreta from her child who had
defecated in the yard of the house. She carefully washed the bottom of the child and after that her own hands
with water and soap. But she threw the excreta of the child in a corner of the yard covering it with sand.
Earlier she had participated in a meeting on excreta disposal and had picked out of it that hand washing and
washing the child after contact with excreta is important. But she believed that this was all related to getting
rid of the bad smells of the excreta which she thought was the main danger for health (which in her society
was a common belief). In that sense the hygiene behavior message fitted well in her framework of habits and
beliefs. She didn't know (wasn't told, didn't pick it up from the meeting, or simply rejected it because it didn't
fit in her framework) that excreta are also dangerous when they are laying somewhere even if covered with
sand and that it is not the smells of the excreta that is dangerous but the bacteria in the excreta.
Another issue was that in her society diarrhea was regarded as a symptom in 8 different types of diseases.
But diarrhea was usually not regarded a disease itself. The common perception was that the 8 diseases all
had different causes. Only one disease was actually considered to be diarrhea caused by dirt, feces and
bacteria and to be treated by 'going tot he hospital'. It was called 'the white man's diarrhea'. The other
diseases had, according to the people, other causes and needed to be prevented in other ways and cured with
often traditional kinds of treatment.
The diarrheas perceived to be caused by breaking social rules (e.g. one type of diarrhea was said to be
caused by breast feeding after having sexual relations or breast feeding while pregnant) or even sorcery (less
common though) were believed to be much more serious and worrying than those caused by incorrect food,
cold and dirt, feces and bacteria (thus also the white man's diarrhea). The diarrheas perceived to be caused
by breaking social rules or sorcery were usually treated by local healers (because people believed that a
doctor would be unable to diagnose the true cause). The local healers used local plants and other items and
accompanied their treatments often by calls to supernatural forces through the use of amulets, ceremonies,
incantations and prayer. The attitude of people was pragmatic though. If treatment through a healer didn't
cure the disease they would go to the doctor and vice versa.
The example shows that people use the knowledge of the causes of diarrhea and fit it in their framework of
Chapter 7 : Hygiene promotion
p. 160
existing perceptions. They have added one disease (the white man's diarrhea) to the list of diseases with
diarrhea symptoms. But it has not changed their perception with regard to the other diseases with diarrhea
symptoms and the ways they try to prevent and treat these. It was found that the above described concepts of
illness did not differ in different social, ethnic or economic groups: a group of mainly professional women
categorized diarrhea in exactly the same way as did women from the most traditional part of the town.
Attitude
Second, people should become motivated to improve their behavior. Knowledge often is not enough and, as
we have seen above, knowledge is used by people in their existing framework of habits, perceptions and
beliefs and because of that may not automatically lead to a motivation for changing their behaviors. Here
also arises the question to what extent their practices need to be adapted. They often relate to centuries of
local experience and may be optimal to some extent for the situation they live in. These things should first be
assessed carefully. Possibly a combination of existing and new behaviors may comprise the best result and
additionally have the advantage to fit better in people's existing frameworks and therefore be more easily
accepted.
Another important aspect with regard to attitude is that people may be more receptive to arguments that fit to
what they find important or what is regarded as an important social or cultural value in their society than the
scientific arguments usually brought forward. For example, the nice smell of soap may be a stronger
argument for people to use it than the argument of hygiene. In such a case it is more logical to emphasize the
nice smell of soap than the scientific arguments in the hygiene promotion campaign.
Even if people really understand things well and interpret them in the right way it does not automatically
mean that they will develop the motivation to change their behavior. For instance most people know that
smoking is bad for their health, still they do it. People simply often do not like to change, especially if this
means that they have to put energy into something or have to refrain from something they like (as with
smoking). Related to this is that people may know but underestimate or undervalue the danger of not
behaving in accordance with the knowledge. People may not believe or not want to believe that the results
can be as dangerous/bad as the knowledge tries to let them believe, especially if the cause-effect relation is
indirect or difficult to see clearly/immediately. If people don’t wash hands after toilet use for instance,
because they don’t believe it makes a big difference, hygiene promoters could show health statistics showing
how high the incidence of diarrhea is and explain what the incidence should normally be. They could also
provide evidence that improved behavior does make a difference for instance by showing health statistics
from other camps where people have improved their hygiene behaviors.
Another problem is that people often change their behavior only periodically, e.g. shortly after an intensive
hygiene promotion campaign, but after some time fall back again in the old behavior. They know and were
motivated but not enough to ensure sustained improved behavior.
Practice
Thirdly, people should also be able to practice the behavior. For instance, if people are motivated to wash
their hands after toilet use but don’t have soap, they will not be able to do it. Telling people that they have to
wash hands with soap then doesn’t make sense. Only promote behaviors that people, in their situation, are
able to practice! With regard to handwashing, if soap is not available, one could think of promoting
handwashing with ashes, or, alternatively start to distribute soap to the people. If the aim is that people will
continue to practice the improved hygiene behavior after returning home it makes sense to focus on those
behaviors that people can really practice back home. This could also be an argument for not providing
certain facilities to people as they will not have such facilities back home either. However, in camps people
are often more vulnerable and living in more crowded conditions and therefore more stringent hygiene
behaviors (and thus also the facilities to practice those behaviors) are needed than what people would
normally need at home.
The need for good information
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p. 161
The above shows that it is extremely important to have good information about what exactly the problems
are with regard to hygiene behavior. What knowledge is lacking? What are the current hygiene behaviors
and what are the perceptions, beliefs, cultural, religious and social values and pressures that cause these
behaviors? What do people do with new knowledge? What existing values could be built on by the hygiene
promotion program to promote better behaviors? And what arguments would motivate people most to
improve their behavior? Also the question of the resources people need to practice improved behaviors, or,
the other way around, how behaviors can be improved within the context of existing possibilities needs to be
answered. So.a lot of detailed information is needed to understand all the interactions of KAP and be able to
design a hygiene promotion program that is optimally effective in promoting improved hygiene behaviors,
i.e. using the messages and hygiene promotion methods that most optimally lead to improved behavior. It is
also clear that there must be an interaction of trial and error in order to develop the most optimal program.
This means that during program execution there must also be a well functioning system of information
gathering with respect to the effects of the program and the ideas of people of how things can be improved
and an interaction between the program and the information coming available. So both for the initial
development of the program and the further optimalization afterwards good information systems are needed.
Some remarks about different information gathering methods
Practice has shown that interviews can give quick insight in things but that people often answer to questions
as to what they think the interviewer would like to hear or what they personally believe to be ideal but do not
bring into practice always (for different reasons). The same goes for group discussions. On the other hand
continuous observations of people's behavior may lead to people behaving differently during the time they
are being observed from what they usually do.
The best thing is to try to avoid these disadvantages as much as possible. For instance in interviews and
meetings the quality of the answers depends often much on the quality of the questions asked and how they
are asked and by who. Also the follow-up on questions is important, i.e. for instance asking for further
details, asking related questions etc. in order to check whether the answers are genuine and to get more
information about certain subjects (see further paragraph 3.3.4.2 on focus group discussions)
During the execution of continuous observations the observer should speak with the people observed as little
as possible and sit in an inconspicuous corner. Also one can do follow-up observations etc. See also the task
description for hygiene promoters (non-emergencies) and paragraph 3.3.2.
Another method is to talk to key resource persons which, depending on the persons, the trust and respect
relations with them and the way of questioning, may give information of differing quality. A first resource
group is of course the hygiene promoters, especially if they are members of the target population themselves.
However, also the hygiene promoters may answer as to what they think you want to hear instead of giving
detailed information about the actual behaviors of people. They may also lack knowledge but be afraid to
admit so or interpret knowledge in their framework of beliefs and perceptions. They may also lack
awareness with regard to the things they actually promote. A good example of this: when I went for lunch in
a camp in Rwanda in 1995 with some of the hygiene promoters, none of them washed their hands before
eating (which was an important message of the hygiene promotion program we executed in the camp)
despite the fact that there was water and soap in the little restaurant!
Important is to realize that none of the information gathering methods is perfect and that often a combination
of the different information gathering methods will yield the most comprehensive package of information.
Hereby it is very important to assure the quality of information gathering. The people involved should be
properly trained and supervised!
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Box 7.3 Hygiene behaviors which are often promoted in camps
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Defecate in toilet facilities, not in the open.
Construct a pit latrine yourself.
Keep the toilet clean
Wash hands after going to the toilet with water and soap (or ashes if no soap is available)
Place back the lid on the hole after using the toilet (in case of a simple pit latrine)
Throw the child’s feces in the latrine and clean the place where the child has defecated, wash
the child’s bottom after it has defecated and then wash your own hands (washing with water
and soap or ashes)
Wash your hands (soap/ashes) before starting food preparation
Wash your hands (soap/ashes) before eating
Wash food (with water), peel fruits
Don’t drink from contaminated sources
Keep the yard and the house clean
Wash clothes and bedding regularly and dry in the sun
Wash yourself and your children every day with water and soap (or ashes)
Dig solid waste pits and use them properly (add ashes and/or cover with some sand each day)
Use improved cooking stoves
Improve drainage around your hut
Keep water in the house in closed and clean containers, close the water containers each time
after use
Never touch the water with your hands; pour it from the container straight into a cup or take it
with a clean cup and pour it in another cup
Collect water in clean containers. make sure not to make the container dirty during transport or
taking the water from the water collection point
A hygiene promotion program needs to examine the potential risk factors for diseases and pick
out those which carry the greatest risk of disease transmission. Hand-washing with soap after
stool contact, safe stool disposal and drinking clean water (i.e. use clean water sources and ensure
that water is not contaminated during transport and storage in the household) are likely to be
primary candidates for hygiene promotion! Hygiene promotion should only target a small
number of practices (say 3 or 4) that are likely to be major causes of disease!
Box 7.4 A few examples of a hygiene promotion talk
//to be worked on still///
Chapter 7 : Hygiene promotion
p. 163
Box 7.5 A few examples of focus group discussions about hygiene subjects
////still to be worked on////
When preparing focus group discussions about hygiene topics the first thing one should do is to
ask key persons and (other) hygiene promoters what they think about the knowledge, awareness
and practices of the people with regard to those topics. Then develop an initial list of questions
and messages and the methods to be used (e.g. using a blackboard to explain things, showing
objects, doing practical exercises, asking questions). To test out whether the meeting as developed
will indeed bring about a discussion and lead to better understanding of the subjects organize a
few try-out meetings first with groups of beneficiaries and then evaluate afterwards how the
sessions could be improved. Such an evaluation can be done together with other hygiene
promoters and preferably also together with the beneficiaries (for instance directly after a
meeting). In this way each time one learns more about what people know, are ware of and practice
and based on this knowledge one can adapt questions, tools, and methods used. It may even be
necessary to adapt the approach. Group meetings about certain behaviors are not always the best
way to facilitate people in discussing and becoming aware about them. For instance,. when it
concerns behaviors people are shy about it may not be the best method to discuss such behaviors
in groups. Through the discussion the beneficiaries will improve their knowledge on the subject
and become aware while it provides in the same time information to the hygiene promoter about
what people do know and to what extent there is a problem with knowledge, awareness or
practicing of the behavior.
This way of working will increase motivation and understanding of the methodology among the
hygiene promoters, give them the ongoing opportunity to improve their skills as facilitators in
such discussions, and with all that lead to more successful group discussions.
Below follow a few examples of focus group discussions and some lists of questions one could
use in focus group discussions. One should keep in mind though that questions should always link
to each and to the things answered and discussed by the people.
///An example of a discussion with the aim to raise awareness about handwashing after using
the toilet
Facilitator: welcome to this meeting. Most of you already know me but I will introduce
myself for those who don’t ….
….
…
So let’s start the meeting with a first question.
What would be the use of handwashing after going to the toilet?
…….//////
Questions with regard to storage and use of water in the household
Where do you collect your water? (drinking, washing, cooking, watering gardens)
What do you think of the water? (taste, quality, distance, color)
Who collects the water?
What do they collect in it?
Chapter 7 : Hygiene promotion
p. 164
Do you transfer water to another container for storage?
What do you store your drinking water in?
Where do you do your clothes washing?
What do you wash your clothes with?
///the above questions are too abstract: give an example of a discussion in which it becomes clear
how the facilitator anticipates on the things said by the participants and adapts the questions to that
etc.///////
Latrine use//////
Box 7.6 Discussing things with individuals: a few hints
Some hints are given here on how to discuss with individuals during household visits:
* Come as a single person
* Explain that you prefer to talk to one person (often the mother of the family) only. Try to avoid
that others will answer for them. It is best if you talk to the person only without others being
around (although this can not always be avoided)
* Don’t write things down, just remember things of which you have the feeling they are
important.
* Keep thinking about why you are there: to stimulate the person you talk with in a positive way
to look at how they are behaving with regard to hygiene issues. It must be a positive and
stimulating conversation with a lot of laughing if possible and about which people afterwards
feel happy.
* Explain why you are there and that is all very informal
* If people are shy try to make them feel more comfortable
* Don’t upset people by telling them that their behavior is wrong, but ask questions to find out
why they are behaving like that in such a way that people do not get upset (examples: talk in
the third person, e.g. don’t say ‘why don’t you do that’ or ‘you do that wrong’, but ask ‘why do
people do that?’; don’t say ‘you do this wrong’, but ask ‘are there also other ways of doing
this?’ and/or ‘have you ever tried to do it so and so?’).
Etc. //to be worked on further////
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Box 7.7 Household survey
A household survey is an investigation in a number of households. It comprises questions posed
to household members and spot check observations in and just around the households (see
paragraph 3.3.2 for an explanation of ‘spot check observations’ ).
A household survey should be executed in a representative part of the households; we recommend
0.3% of all households with a minimum of 20, well spread over the camp. Household surveys
should be executed with regular intervals in non-emergency situations (we recommend once
every three to six months).
The survey provides quantitative information about how things are done or happen in the
households with respect to drinking water, sanitation and hygiene behavior aspects. The
information has an absolute value in itself but can also be used to detect trends in comparison to
earlier household surveys executed.
The aim of a household survey is to verify whether objectives set by the program with regard to
household topics are realized and learn about how things can be improved. The households to be
visited should be ad randomly selected (for methods to select huts ad randomly see Box 7.9).
A household survey should preferably be developed, executed and the results analyzed by/with
the involved staff and camp inhabitants. This can be realized as follows:
1. Hygiene promoters, manager and supervisor come together in a meeting
2. The supervisor (or manager) explains what the idea of the survey is
3. The hygiene promoters divide themselves in small groups. Each group discusses and puts on
paper which subjects should to their opinion be included in the survey. They describe what
information is needed about these subjects and how this information can best be obtained. If
they want the hygiene promoters can already formulate the questions and observations they
would like to include.
4. Everybody comes together in plenary
5. Each group presents their results
6. In plenary the outcome of the different groups is discussed and together it is decided which
subjects will be included in the survey and how information will be obtained on them
7. In plenary the questions and observations to be done are worked out in further detail
8. The household survey is tested by a number of the hygiene promoters in a small number of
households
9. The results are discussed in plenary and the survey adapted accordingly
10. Hygiene promoters execute the household survey
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Box 7.7 Household survey (continued)
The role of the manager and the involved senior staff in this process is to act as facilitators. This
means giving advise when asked for, providing additional information when needed or asked for
and especially, asking the right questions at the right time. Asking questions is the best way to
provide information or make people become aware of something. Good questions stimulate
people to come forward with their own knowledge and to think things over (again). With for
instance questions such as ‘Why do you think this is important?’, ‘Will this give us good
information about... ?‘, etc you can make people realize that they have not yet covered a subject
completely
During the development of the household survey the manager and senior staff should also check
whether all important subjects are included (use for instance the behaviors listed in Box 7.3 and
the subjects listed at the end of this box as checklists). If certain subjects are not brought forward
by anybody they should ask the hygiene promoters during the plenary session about these
subjects (ask for instance: ‘What about this and this subject? Do you think it is important in this
camp?’). Make sure that all subjects and methodologies (e.g. on how to do the observations) are
discussed and try to get a feeling whether everybody agrees and is happy with the final result.
Make sure that especially the women among the staff have participated actively in the discussions
and the decisions about what will be included and how the survey will be done.
A problem is that often too many questions and observations are formulated. Too many questions
and observations will make the analysis of the results very complicated and time consuming. It is
therefore an important task of the manager and supervisors to ensure that only very crucial
questions and observations are included and that they are formulated crystal clear.
The whole exercise may take a few days of work for the hygiene promoters and about
one day for the field manager. The manager does not have to be present all the time
during the discussions. He should be there a few times during the exercise and at the
end to check whether the survey is comprehensive and ask questions/give comments in
case he believes things can still be further worked out. It is worth to invest his amount of
time. It will yield a good household survey that can be used as a basis for the household
surveys to be carried out every three to six months.
Each time before a next household survey is executed it will need to be adapted in order
to fit better to the possibly changed circumstances and be further improved. It is however
definitely worth the effort to already put in the effort initially to develop a household
survey of a high quality. The reason is twofold:
1. The result will be that also the first household surveys will give such good results that the
information obtained is really useful.
2. If the survey is of good quality it means that in the future adaptations can probably remain
limited (unless of course the circumstances really change). This will spare time in the future,
but more important, because the surveys will be almost the same, it will be better possible to
compare the results of the different household surveys with each other (which makes them
more suitable for evaluation purposes).
The people who have carried out the survey should preferably also analyze the results together
with the manager and senior staff.
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Box 7.7 Household survey (continued)
The advantages of the development process for household surveys as described above are:
1. staff and possibly also involved camp inhabitants will get very motivated and will improve
their own skills and knowledge,
2. very good and important quantitative and qualitative information will be obtained (useful as
information source for the management of the programs and as baseline information for
evaluation purposes) without the need for the manager to put a lot of time and effort in it,
3. the process secures that the survey will fit to the circumstances (but be careful to leave out
subjects when people think they are not important)
Although more difficult to realize, program staff can carry out the survey together with
people from the communities in the camp. These could be for instance women groups,
community committees or a committees selected by the different communities in the
camp for this purpose. Involving the camp inhabitants will increase motivation, sense of
involvement and especially also trust in the program among the beneficiaries. It will also
contribute to better and more detailed information about the situation and problems in
each part of the camp. The exercise itself will also increase knowledge among the
beneficiaries executing the household surveys and stimulate to more motivation and
discussion among these and other beneficiaries and further stimulate them to actually
bring the new knowledge and insights into practice.
Don’t forget however that the aim of the household surveys is to get information. Don’t
compromise on that in order to favor optimal participation by beneficiaries!
The people involved in the execution of the surveys should be literate if they are to write
things down, but the survey can also be organized in such a way that no writing is
needed (see further on).
The hygiene promoters may need to be trained with regard to posing questions. They should for
instance only pose questions that can not be answered with ‘yes’ or ‘no’. For instance ask:
‘Which insects form a problem in your house?’, or, even better, ‘Could you mention me the two
problems which hamper you most?’ But don’t ask ‘Are mosquitoes a problem in your hut?’
because on the last type of question people will probably answer what they think you want to hear
and/or give an impression that it is more serious then it really is.
When the results of a household survey are obtained and analyzed it is extremely important to feed
back the results to the beneficiaries and discuss with them what can and/or should be done to solve
the problems found. Divide between what the program can do and what can be done by the people
themselves! Then make plans together and implement the actions agreed on. This feed-back to and
planning with the people can be realized through the normal discussions hygiene promoters have
each day with the people in their areas or by special meetings organized to discuss the results.
Chapter 7 : Hygiene promotion
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Box 7.7 Household survey (continued)
Subjects that could be covered by household surveys:
* how and for which purposes water is used in households and how much is used for each
purpose,
* where households obtain their water (source types, specific locations, distances),
* water quality in the household (free residual chlorine/fecal coliform),
* how water is transported (transport means, volume of container) to the household,
* how water is stored in the household,
* how much storage capacity households have,
* whether storage containers are covered/closed
* how household members get water out of the storage containers (do they get it out
hygienically; although this subject is more suitable for continuous observations done in
households),
* how much water carrying capacity households have,
* which water uses people find most important,
* whether households further treat the water themselves,
* how they get rid of their solid waste,
* whether they have a latrine and how they use it (identify, observe if possible, differences
between men, women and children),
* how cleaning of the latrines is organized (who does it, how often),
* how, how often and where people clean themselves and their laundry,
* whether people wash their hands after going to the toilet/before eating food and what they use
to wash with,
* whether they clean their hut and its immediate surroundings sufficiently,
* whether and how they clean up feces of children hygienically,
* whether they are aware of disease causing factors,
* which diseases they suffer(ed) from (who) now/recently,
* whether people recently died in the household (how many died, causes, age, sex, etc.) and how
they were buried (were they officially registered; how?),
* whether the hut has good and poor general cleanliness in and outside,
* numbers of under and over fives in the household with poor (dirty/bad quality) and good
(clean/good quality) clothing,
* good or bad cooking practices (cooking inside hut with a lot of smoke) and good or poor
cooking stoves (how much wood do they use?)
* ……
// include:
* a part about how to analyze the results of a household survey
* a part on how household surveys can be executed by people who can't read and write ///////
Chapter 7 : Hygiene promotion
p. 169
Box 7.8 participative mapping
A good way of assessing a situation with beneficiaries and/or planning actions with them is by
asking camp inhabitants to draw a map of their area. They can draw the map on paper or in the
sand on the ground. They can indicate with different symbols, which they can also give different
magnitudes if they want, the existing structures and roads, the locations, type and extent of the
certain problems they face etc. The map should best be drawn after discussions are held and
observations done by/with the inhabitants of the area. Program staff should support this exercise
by giving explanation about the use of the map, and writing down the problems which people
give the highest priority. It is best to draw the map on paper so that a copy can be made of it as
important source of information. The good thing, beside the important information obtained
through it, is that map drawing is usually conceived as a very stimulating exercise by all who are
involved in it.
Let staff/camp inhabitants draw a map in which they indicate the locations with problems, using
different symbols for the different problems and their severity. (see ‘Waterlines, vol. 15, no. 1,
July 1996, p. 21-22). The magnitude can partly be assessed by using more or less objective
scoring mechanisms, but can be subjectively be determined by the staff or camp inhabitants as
well where they have to decide together in which locations the problems are largest compared to
other locations. They should also be asked to indicate which problems should get more attention.
More detailed assessments can then, if necessary, be developed together with the staff and/or
with an expert if you feel you don’t have enough expertise yourself (e.g. when vector problems
are observed or suspected), to get better information about the magnitude, locations and causes
of those problems to enable you to develop the most effective and efficient measures to solve
these problems.
Important here is that first discussions are held. In such discussions usually many problems come
forward that are not directly water and sanitation related. These should be noted down as well,
but do not necessarily have to be included in the map. Some advantages of this method:
people don’t have to be literate
people can do it themselves, including drawing of the map, making up the symbols etc.
the magnitude of a problem does not need to be expressed in definite terms, but will give a good
indication anyway in relative terms, making clearly visible the differences in magnitude of the
problems at the different locations.
it gives a very clear and quick overview of all problems discovered in the area.
it can easily be included in the reports to the head office giving a clear illustration of the
problems that can also easily be understood by someone who is not informed completely about
all the details of the program and the circumstances in the area.
if used with the community in an area people can directly draw the map usually without having
to do a real survey as they are usually very familiar with the problems in their area. It will also
reflect the priorities of these people as they will probably tend to overemphasize the problems
related to these priorities in comparison to other problems. Based on the map a discussion with
the community can be organized to further prioritize the needs and finding ways of solving the
problems in a combined program/community effort (ask people to indicate the numbers 1, 2 and
3 of severe problems in their area). Be careful not to promise things or raise expectations that
can not be fulfilled, especially if problems are brought forward that do not have anything to do
with water and/or sanitation issues (see also paragraph ....). Prepare your staff for this.
Chapter 7 : Hygiene promotion
p. 170
An example of a map:
figure with map and symbols etc. of a part of the camp.
For his own interpretation and for reporting to higher levels, program staff and manager can
draw an overview map of the whole camp, based on the maps drawn by the communities in the
different parts of the camp and other observations. A check will then be needed however to
compare the relative severity of problems as identified by the communities in the different parts.
This can be done by executing additional camp walks by the manager together with program
staff. An example of a map as described here is given in Appendix .... (the above participative
map formed one part of it; notice the changes made)
Box 7.9 Selecting households ad randomly
Ad randomly means without any influence by the one who is selecting. Two ad random selection
methods are described here:
the pencil method,
the transect method
Pencil method
Stand in the middle of a number of huts. Rotate a pencil on a flat surface (e.g. a piece of carton);
the hut standing nearest to where the pencil point directs, once it has come to a stand still, is the
selected hut. It is important to use an ad random method for visiting households during surveys
or observations because, often without knowing it, the people doing the work may tend to choose
for a certain type of hut, for instance the biggest ones, when they would select the huts
themselves. This is not preferable because it could influence the outcome of the survey (e.g. in
big huts probably richer people live with other habits and problems than the people living in
small huts).
Transect method
Walk a certain route through the area and select every 4th or 5th hut along the route.
Chapter 7 : Hygiene promotion
p. 171
7.3Team leader
///////////////////// still to be worked out from here onwards
Tools/materials needed per team leader:
Number of team leaders needed:
One per 8 to 12 hygiene promoters (non-emergencies). In emergencies one works with hygiene
promoters only if the structure of hygiene teams has not yet been established. There is contact
between all hygiene promoters and the program manager (several times) every day in such
situations.
Tasks:
* Inform the hygiene promoters about all programs of importance with regard to hygiene
messages and how the beneficiaries can participate in, feedback to and influence those
programs.
* Provide training to the hygiene promoters where and when needed, especially about how to
communicate and have discussions with the beneficiaries (individuals and groups) and the
principles of KAP (see Box 7.2).
* Each morning go with one of the hygiene promoters and observe the work he does, both
discussions with individuals and with groups, and give feedback. Pay particular attention to
the following points: 1) were all subjects that were meant to be discussed really discussed, 2)
did the participants really increase their knowledge and awareness with respect to the subjects
discussed, 3) what were the good things and what can be further improved.
* Organize a household survey once every three to six months (together with the manager)
(only for non-emergencies). Work out the results together with a representation of the
hygiene promoters (and the manager). Afterwards inform all hygiene promoters, together
with the representing hygiene promoters, about the results of the survey in a general
presentation to all hygiene promoters followed by a discussion with them (all in the local
language). Draw conclusions together, put them on paper and make sure that these are
followed up. The manager can be present in the meeting as an observer, not as a participant.
Also the supervisor should be there mainly as an observer, may be only now and then asking
a question to stimulate the others to think about certain things. Make a separate report about
the household survey and the meeting(s) with the hygiene promoters together with the
program manager. See further Box 7.7.
* Organize the counting of households every two (emergencies) to six (non-emergencies)
weeks. Each person involved in the counting should get a certain part of the camp. The
supervisor should crosscheck a few of the countings by counting the huts in a few parts
himself and compare with the results of the persons who counted there. He should also ask in
about 30 to 50 households (chosen from all over the camp without any preference; this can
also be done by asking 30 to 50 people who walk at one of the market places in the camp)
with how many people they are, write the numbers down and afterwards sum them up and
divide the total by the number of households/persons questioned. This gives the average
number of persons per household.
* Make sure that at the end of each day all hygiene promoters pass by to give you information
about their work that day. Register each day who has worked, the number of households
visited, the number of group meetings held and other activities executed.
* Organize together with the hygiene promoters structured continuous observation every ... to
... weeks. Call hygiene promoters together after first round of observations to discuss the
results and problems encountered; the same after the second round. Prepare proposals for
adaptations of the observation format and instruction list and bring in plenary with other
Chapter 7 : Hygiene promotion
p. 172
teams plus supervisor and manager when there is a plenary meeting. Visit hygiene promoters
during the observations if believed necessary.
* Fill in the weekly report and discuss things with the manager.
///Box 7.10 about theatre: how to help hygiene promoters to prepare theatre, important features
etc. (see the informal India documentation of IRC) and other hygiene promotion methods: radio
programs, puppet plays, posters (see Helping Health Workers Learn)/////
////Box about planning and set-up of a hygiene promotion program based on the results of a KAP
survey////
Chapter 7 : Hygiene promotion
p. 173
Form 7.2
Example of report form to be filled in each week by the team
leaders of the hygiene teams together1
Country:_____________________
Date:_____________________________
Camp:_________________
Total number of group meetings held
Total number of households visited
Total number of hygiene promoters who worked
Total number of hours worked by all hygiene promoters
together
Other activities executed (describe shortly)
Specific problems encountered (specify per team and/or
per area in the camp)
Remark: In emergencies it may be extremely important to convey certain very basic hygiene
messages and ensure that people change their behavior. In case of a (potential) cholera epidemic,
for instance, it is important to warn people that they should not drink from the infected sources.
Information is then needed to know whether such messages have been passed on and whether
people really change their behavior as a result (i.e. in this case no longer drink from the infected
water sources). Although during an emergency it may not be possible to obtain information
about the contribution of health messages to the actual change in people's behavior, it may still
be possible to measure several functionality indicators, such as the number of staff hours spent
conveying the messages. This gives an indication about the extent to which the messages have
been spread (this is also in line with the Minimum Evaluation Procedure; see Appendices 4 and
7). As none of the guidelines received from the participants contained any hygiene behavior
indicators this is seen as an indication that the knowledge and experience with respect to this
subject is still very limited. It is therefore believed that thorough investigations will be needed to
determine: 1) whether it is possible and useful in emergency situations to measure certain
hygiene behavior indicators, 2) which indicators should be measured for which camp situations,
and 3) how they should be measured.
Give examples of numbers of hygiene promoters employed for different situations (per unit of
population).
1
The form is meant for use in non-emergencies. Use the back of the form or add other papers for the
explanations if there is not enough space. Try to answer brief and to the point.
Chapter 7 : Hygiene promotion
p. 174
8.
Reporting formats
8.1Introduction
This Chapter consists of an overview of subjects recommended for inclusion in different
kinds of reports. Most of the information needed on the subjects included in the different
report types proposed will have to come from the monitoring system. However, informal and
ad-hoc or one off observations could and should also provide important information in all the
reports.
/////////////
Some comments on monthly reports:
A distinction should be made between monthly reports that cover a number of water and/or
sanitation programmes and monthly reports that cover different kinds of programmes (e.g.
nutritional, curative health etc.). The distinction to be made is not so much in the subjects that
should be included but how detailed the descriptions should be.
Some comments on periodic reports:
A periodic report is written by programme field staff (usually the programme manager or
coordinator), usually at regular intervals, for instance every three or six months or at any time
when it is felt necessary. Also for these reports a distinction should be made between the
reports covering a number of water and/or sanitation programmes and the reports that cover
different kinds of programmes (e.g. nutritional, curative health etc.). The distinction to be
made is not so much in the subjects that should be included but how detailed the descriptions
should be.
/////////////////////////////////////////
8.2Weekly report
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Main objective of the report: overview for programme management which can be used for
daily programme management, information to head-office; information source for reports
covering larger periods of time.
Report produced by: programme manager(s)
Subjects to be included:
Indicate: report type ('weekly report'), programme sort (e.g. "Drinking water programme",
Water and Sanitation Programme(s)"), period over which reported, name(s) of programme
area(s), author(s) of the report, date of finalization of report.
For each programme discuss progress and problems/constraints of the activities in relation to
the programme planning (assess whether activities planned for that week have all been
properly executed and explain why if not; pay special attention to indicator values measured
during that week which differ a lot from the weeks before or which are not according to the
quality standards set; also if indicators have not been measured according to the programme
planning, explain why).
In cases of significant changes/problems in other organizations and/or their programmes
which are in some way important for the programme(s) covered by the report, give a short
explanation of these changes or problems and how they do or may influence the
programme(s) covered by the report.
Describe other (potential) problems or issues important for the programme(s) reported on
(e.g. security, (potential) problems with water and/or sanitation related subjects for which no
programme activities exist, (potential) influx of new arrivals).
Describe all (unforeseen) activities carried out which are not standard (unofficial activities).
Activities planned for the following week.
Chapter 8 : Reporting formats
p. 175
7.
Miscellaneous.
8.3Monthly report
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Main objective of the report: overview for programme management which can be used for
daily management purposes; information to head-office; in some cases information to the
donors; information source for reports covering larger periods of time.
Report produced by: leader/coordinator of management team (programme managers
responsible for delivery of the data/information needed).
Subjects to be included:
Indicate: report type ('monthly report'), programme sort (e.g. "Drinking Water
Programme(s)", "Water and Sanitation Programme(s)", "WatSan aspects of the Primary
Health Care Programme", "WatSan, Nutritional and Curative health Programme") period over
which reported, name(s) of programme area(s), author(s) of the report, date of finalization of
report.
Executive summary.
Short description of the history of the programme(s) reported on, including a broad outline of
the original strategies and planning, the changes made in the planning so far (and the reasons
for them), and the current main objectives and time frame of the programme(s).
General description of the environmental health situation in the programme area(s).
For each programme discuss progress and problems/constraints of the activities in relation to
the programme planning. Include an overview of all the indicators measured during that
month, preferably in graphs against time also containing the results of former months, so that
a comparison with those months is easy. Assess whether the programme results are according
to the objectives and time frame planned. If activities have not been carried out or indicators
have not been measured according to the programme planning, explain why.
Discuss progress, results, and problems of and coordination with other
organizations/programmes as far as they are relevant/important for the programme(s) reported
on.
Describe other (potential) problems or issues important for the programme(s) reported on
(e.g. security, (potential) problems with water and/or sanitation related subjects for which no
programme activities exist, (potential) influx of new arrivals).
Describe important (unforeseen) activities carried out which are not standard for the
programme (unofficial activities).
Activities and changes planned/proposed for the following month.
Miscellaneous.
8.4Periodic report (usually every 3 or 6 months)
1.
2.
Main objective of the report: decision tool for programme management and head-office,
providing an overview of the programme(s) results which can be used to assess whether
course(s) of programme(s) should be changed, new activities included or old ones excluded;
information and accountability to head office; in some cases accountability to donors;
information source for reports covering longer periods of time and/or for external evaluation
reports.
Report produced by: leader/coordinator of management team and/or programme manager(s)
(programme managers and accountant responsible for delivery of the data/information
needed).
Subjects to be included:
Indicate: report type (e.g. 'three monthly report'), programme sort (e.g. "Drinking Water
Programme(s)", "Water and Sanitation Programme(s)", "WatSan aspects of the Primary
Health Care Programme", "WatSan, Nutritional and Curative health Programmes") period
over which reported, name(s) of programme area(s), author(s) of the report, date of
finalization of report.
Executive summary.
Chapter 8 : Reporting formats
p. 176
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
Description of the history of the emergency.
General description of the programme(s) reported on, including an explanation of the original
strategies and planning, the changes made in the planning so far (and the reasons for that),
and the current programme planning (a detailed overview of objectives, activities, time frame,
indicators, resources needed for execution and assumptions made should be put in an Annex,
preferably in the form of a Logical Framework).
General description of the activities of other programmes/organizations in the programme
area(s).
General description of the environmental health situation in the programme area(s).
For each programme discuss progress and problems/constraints of the activities in relation to
the programme planning (give overview of all indicators measured during the period covered
by the report, preferably in graphs against time that also contain the results of previous
periods, to enable comparison with those periods, and assess (give textual explanation)
whether the programme results are according to the objectives and time frame planned; if
activities have not been carried out or indicators have not been measured according to the
programme planning, explain why).
Describe important (unforeseen) activities carried out during the period covered by the report
which are not standard for the programme (unofficial activities).
Discuss progress, results, and problems of and coordination with other
programmes/organizations; put main emphasis on major problems and aspects
relevant/important for the programme(s) reported on.
Assess for each programme area the combined impact of the activities of all programmes and
organizations in that area and the specific contribution of the programme(s) covered by the
report to that.
Describe other (potential) problems or issues important for the programme(s) reported upon
(e.g. security, (potential) problems with water and/or sanitation related subjects for which no
programme activities exist, (potential) influx of new arrivals).
Conclusions and recommendations. Include: lessons learnt, additional assessments or
evaluations proposed, proposal and argumentation for adapted programme planning, if
thought necessary, explaining the proposed changes in objectives, activities, time frame,
indicators and resources (include a proposed new Logical Framework in an Annex when
considerable changes are proposed).
Financial overview and analysis (Questions: should this not be done in a separate report
covering all finances from field to head-office level, and if included in this report, which
finances should be included / which not?).
Maps of the area(s), organigram(s) of the programme(s), job descriptions, monitoring forms
used, description of educational material used, designs of facilities and textual explanation.
Bibliography with literature used and recommended.
Miscellaneous.
Chapter 8 : Reporting formats
p. 177
8.5External evaluation report (executed in ongoing programmes when
needed or at standard intervals)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Main objective of the report: external control if everything is done as claimed, decision tool
for programme management and head-office, providing an overview of the programme(s)
results which can be used to assess whether course(s) of programme(s) should be changed,
new activities included or old ones excluded; lessons to be learnt for future programmes and
organizations' procedures, structures etc.; usually also used for accountability to donors.
Report produced by: mission with people from head-office and/or the donor agency or agents
temporarily employed by them for that specific mission (head-office staff, national staff,
programme managers, leader/coordinator of management team, and accountants responsible
for cooperation and delivery of data/information needed).
Subjects to be included:
Indicate: report type ('External evaluation report'), programme sort (e.g. "Drinking Water
Programme(s)", "Water and Sanitation Programme(s)", "WatSan aspects of the Primary
Health Care Programme", "WatSan, Nutritional and Curative health Programme") period over
which reported, name(s) of programme area(s), author(s) of the report, date of finalization of
the report.
Executive summary.
Description of the methodology, work schedule/ToR and purpose of the evaluation (can be
put in an Annex).
Description of the history of the emergency.
General description of the programme(s) reported on, including an explanation of the original
strategies and planning, the changes made in the planning so far (and the reasons for that),
and the current programme planning (a detailed overview of objectives, activities, time frame,
indicators, resources needed for execution and assumptions made should be put in an Annex,
preferably in the form of a Logical Framework).
General description of the activities of other programmes/organizations in the programme
area(s).
General description of the environmental health situation in the programme area(s).
For each programme discuss progress and problems/constraints of the activities in relation to
the programme planning (give overview of all indicators measured during the period covered
by the report, preferably in graphs against time that also contain the results of previous
periods to enable comparison with those periods, and assess (give textual explanation)
whether the programme results are according to the objectives and time frame planned; if
activities have not been carried out or if indicators have not been measured according to the
programme planning, explain why).
Describe the contingency capacity and contingency plans (how much of which equipment is
available and where; how much time is needed to mobilize equipment and human resources
and get them in place).
Describe important (unforeseen) activities carried out during the period covered by the report
which are not standard for the programme (unofficial activities).
Discuss progress, results, and problems of and coordination with other
programmes/organizations; put main emphasis on major problems and aspects
relevant/important for the programme(s) reported upon.
Assess for each programme area the combined impact of the activities of all programmes and
organizations in that area and the specific contribution of the programme(s) covered by the
report to that.
Describe other (potential) problems or issues important for the programme(s) reported upon
(e.g. security, (potential) problems with water and/or sanitation related subjects for which no
programme activities exist, (potential) influx of new arrivals).
Describe how programme staff measure the indicators and how their monitoring performance
is controlled.
Explain security plans and describe whether they are adequate, how they could/should be
improved.
Chapter 8 : Reporting formats
p. 178
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
Conclusions and recommendations. Include: lessons learnt with emphasis on application for
the programme(s) evaluated (if relevant), future programmes, and the structures and
procedures of the implementing agency; for ongoing programmes: description of and
argumentation for additional assessments or evaluations believed to be necessary, proposal(s)
and argumentation for adapted programme planning, if thought necessary, explaining the
proposed changes in objectives, activities, time frame, indicators and resources (include a
proposed new Logical Framework in an Annex if large changes are proposed).
Complete financial overview and analysis of programme(s) finances from field to head-office
level according to the head-office's and/or donor's requirements.
Maps of the area(s), orginogram(s) of the programme(s), job descriptions, monitoring forms
used, description of educational material used, designs of facilities and textual explanation.
Bibliography with literature used and recommended.
Miscellaneous.
8.6Handover and/or end of mission report for programmes which are
not yet finished
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Main objective of the report: information source for following manager, information to headoffice.
Report produced by: programme manager.
Remark: this report should be as detailed as possible to facilitate the take-over by the
succeeding manager and should preferably be finished (and be given to and discussed with
the succeeding manager) before the manager leaves the area.
Subjects to be included:
Indicate: report type ('Hand over report' or 'End of mission report'), programme sort (e.g.
"Drinking Water Programme(s)", "Water and Sanitation Programme(s)") period over which
reported, name(s) of programme area(s), author(s) of the report, date of finalization of the
report.
Executive summary.
Description of the history of the emergency
Description of the programme(s) reported on, explanation of the original planning, the
changes made in the planning so far (with the reasons for that), and the current programme
planning (a detailed overview of objectives, activities, time frame, indicators, resources
available and assumptions made should be put in an Annex, preferably in the form of a
Logical Framework).
General description of the environmental health situation in the programme area(s).
For each programme discuss progress and problems/constraints of the activities in relation to
the programme planning (give overview of all indicators measured during the whole
programme, preferably in graphs against time, and assess, giving textual explanation, whether
the programme results are according to the objectives and time frame planned; if activities
have not been carried out or indicators have not been measured according to the programme
planning; explain why).
Describe large (unforeseen) activities carried out during the period covered by the report
which are not standard for the programme (unofficial activities) and explain to what extent
they can be expected in the future.
Discuss progress, results, and problems of and coordination with other
programmes/organizations; put main emphasis on major problems and aspects
relevant/important to the programme(s) reported on.
Assess for each programme area the combined impact of the activities of all programmes and
organizations in that area together and the specific contribution of the programme(s) covered
by the report to that.
Describe other (potential) problems or issues important for the programme(s) reported on
(e.g. security, (potential) problems with water and/or sanitation related subjects for which no
programme activities exist, (potential) influx of new arrivals).
Chapter 8 : Reporting formats
p. 179
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Conclusions and recommendations. Include: lessons learnt, description of and argumentation
for additional assessments or evaluations believed to be necessary, proposal(s) and
argumentation for adapted programme planning, if believed necessary, explaining the
proposed changes in objectives, activities, time frame, indicators and resources (include a
proposed new Logical Framework in an Annex if large changes are proposed).
Remarks about finances, book-keeping, administration (how is it organized, what has gone
wrong in the past, how much budget is available for the various activities/purposes, etc.).
Maps of the area(s), organigram(s) of the programme(s), job descriptions, monitoring forms
used and explanation of how and when indicators should be measured if not yet explained
elsewhere (or referral to manual in which this is described), description of educational
material used, designs of facilities and textual explanation.
Bibliography with literature used and recommended.
Miscellaneous.
Chapter 8 : Reporting formats
p. 180
8.7Final external evaluation report at the end of a programme or
cluster of programmes
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
Main objective of the report: accountability to the head-office and donor(s); external control
to check whether everything has been done as claimed; lessons to be learnt for future
programmes and organizations' procedures, structures etc.
Report produced by: mission with people from head-office and/or the donor agency or agents
temporarily employed by them for that specific mission (head-office staff, national staff,
programme managers, leader/coordinator of management team, and accountants responsible
for cooperation and delivery of data/information needed when they are still in place at the
time of the evaluation).
Subjects to be included:
Indicate: report type ('External final evaluation report'), programme sort (e.g. "Drinking Water
Programme(s)", "Water and Sanitation Programme(s)", "WatSan aspects of the Primary
Health Care Programme", "WatSan, Nutritional and Curative health Programme"), period
over which reported, name(s) of programme area(s), author(s) of the report, date of
finalization of the report.
Executive summary.
Description of the methodology, work schedule/ToR and purpose of the evaluation (can be
put in an Annex).
Description of the history of the emergency.
General description of the programme(s) reported on, including an explanation of the original
strategies and planning, the changes made in the planning during the course of the
programme(s) and the reasons for that (an overview of the final formulation of objectives,
activities, time frame, indicators, resources needed for execution and assumptions made
should be put in an Annex, preferably in the form of a Logical Framework).
General description of the activities of other programmes/organizations in the programme
area(s).
For each programme discuss how the activities developed in relation to the programme
planning (give overview of all indicators measured during the programme, preferably in
graphs against time, and assess, giving textual explanation, whether the programme results are
according to the planned objectives and time frame; if activities have not been carried out or
indicators have not been measured according to the programme planning, explain why).
Discuss progress, results, and problems of and coordination with other
programmes/organizations with main emphasis on major problems and aspects
relevant/important to the programme(s) reported on.
Assess for each programme area the combined impact of the activities of all programmes and
organizations in that area together and the specific contribution of the programme(s) covered
by the report to that.
Describe other problems or issues which were important for the programme(s) reported on
(e.g. security, problems with water and/or sanitation related subjects for which no programme
activities exist, influxes of new arrivals).
Complete financial overview and analysis of programme(s) finances from field to head-office
level according to the head-office's and/or donor's requirements.
Conclusions and recommendations. Answer to questions such as: has the programme
achieved its objectives as was planned (assess for this purpose as much as possible the
effectiveness, efficiency, relevance, impact and sustainability), was the contingency capacity
sufficient throughout the programme, what are the lessons that can be learnt for future
programmes and for improvement of the structures and procedures of the implementing
agency.
Maps of the area(s) and organigram(s) of the programme(s).
Bibliography with literature used and recommended.
Miscellaneous
Chapter 8 : Reporting formats
p. 181
8.7.1.1.1.1
Examples of a water points map, water point sheet and water point table
WATER POINT TABLE
Water point table for ......... water system (describe which water system)
Total number of water points: .....
Number of water points investigated: ....
Water point
Water point(describe)
Water point (describe)
Group and its numbers
Camp population (fill in: total
number of people)
Water point
(describe)
Estimated total
water abstraction
from whole
system (based on
the observations in
the investigated
water points)
fill in estimated
total amount of
water obtained by
the use group of
this row
fill in the amount of water
used by the use group of this
row from the water point of
this column
Other population groups (fill in:
estimated total number of people)
Health centres (fill in:1) total
numbers of out patients, and 2)
total number of in-patients, of all
health centres together)
Feeding centres (fill in: total
number of patients of all centres
together)
Chapter 8 : Reporting formats
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Cholera treatment centres (fill in:
total number of patients of all
centres together)
Cattle (fill in total number of
animals)
Donkeys, mules, horses (fill in
total number of animals)
Sheep, goats (fill in total number
of animals)
Camels (fill in total number of
large animals)
Irrigation (fill in total irrigated
surface)
Others (explain)
Total
fill in total amount of water
obtained from the water
point of this column
fill in total amount of water
obtained from the water point of
this column
fill in total amount of water obtained from
the water point of this column
Assess whether the amounts available to the different use groups are in accordance with the water quantity
requirements of these groups!
Chapter 8 : Reporting formats
p. 183
fill in estimated
total amount of
water obtained
from all water
points of his
system, based on
the observations in
the investigated
water points.
2 DIFFERENT WATER POINT SHEET FOR WATER POINT SURVEY
Sheet 1: numbers of people and livestock counted
Camp:
Name of water point:
Name of water system:
Date:
6-8
put a stripe for each person or animal taking water from the water point
8 - 10
10 - 12
12 - 2
2-4
4-6
Number of people
counted taking water
from the water point
during the two busiest
hours of the day
Number of cattle
counted drinking
water from the water
point during the two
busiest hours of the
day
Number of donkeys,
mules and horses
counted drinking
water from the water
point during the two
busiest hours of the
day
Number of sheep and
goats counted
Chapter 8 : Reporting formats
p. 184
Totals
6-8
drinking water from
the water point
during the two
busiest hours of the
day
Number of camels
counted drinking
water directly from
the water point
during the two
busiest hours of the
day
Estimated amount of
water abstracted
from the water point
for irrigation, clinics,
small industrial
activities or other
purposes (desribe)
Sheet 2:
Name of water point:
Explanation: ask as many people as possible who have obtained water from the water point how much water they have
obtained, for what they are going to use the water
Chapter 8 : Reporting formats
p. 185
Group
number (one
stripe for each
person
interviewed)
amount of water
obtained (fill in
amount for each
person
interviewed)
purpose for which water is used (one stripe for
each purpose)
household
for
livestock
Camp inhabitants
Other people
Chapter 8 : Reporting formats
p. 186
other
8.7.1.1.1.2
Environmental hygiene survey
Short explanation.
A survey, executed with regular intervals, combining structured and formal
observations and discussions about the camp environment. The survey should
preferrably be developed, executed and the results analysed by/with the involved staff
and camp inhabitants. The actions necessary to solve the problems should be
determined and executed as much as possible by the people themselves as well with
support from the sanitation or any other programme in the camp where necessary.
An example of how an environmental survey can be developed and executed.
////Beschrijf onderstaande in de vorm van een case study!!///////
In a session with the involved programme staff (for instance hygienists or community
health workers) the manager (or better, one of the leading staff who has prepared this
session with the manager) explains what the idea of an environmental survey is and
discusses (mainly by posing questions) why and how this can/should be done with
large inputs from the camp inhabitants themselves (ask the staff why they think this is
better; checklist: creation of knowledge and awareness with regard to environmental
hygiene issues and motivation to detect their own environmental hygiene problems
and also to solve them). After this plenary discussion a short introduction is given
about the different methodologies that can be used to obtain information about
environmental hygiene issues together with the people (checklist: questionnaires,
group mapping, observations, etc.).
The staff are then asked to divide themselves in small groups and put on paper which
subjects should to their opinion be included in the survey, what information is needed
about these subjects and how this information can best be obtained. Then discuss in
plenary the outcome of the different groups and decide all together in discussion how
the final survey should be (i.e. which subjects will be included, how it will be
executed etc.). Use the checklist of subjects in paragraph 3.2 and the methodologies
for obtaining information as described above to discuss later in plenary what should
be included in the survey and how the information should be obtained. If subjects on
the checklist have not been brought forward then ask the staff during the plenary
session whether these should not be included as well. Make sure that all subjects and
methodologies are discussed and try to really get a feeling if everybody agrees and is
happy with the final result. Make sure that especially the women among the staff have
participated actively in the discussions and the decisions about what will be included
and how the survey will be done.
The manager’s role in this process is to be a facilitator: give advise when asked for,
give additional information if asked for (by asking questions like ‘why do you think
this is important’, ‘do you think this will give us good information about... ‘, etc you
can make people realize that they have not yet covered a subject completely and, if
Chapter 8 : Reporting formats
p. 187
they feel it is needed, ask you for information or advise). Make sure that at least all
the above subjects are discussed and that decisions are made about whether and how
they are going to be included in the survey.
A next phase is to test the survey and finalize it. This can be done in a view of the
areas in the camp where the programme staff works with the people, executing the
survey together with them following the designed set-up. After this in another plenary
session the survey set-up can be adapted to the experiences obtained and finalized.
This set-up can then be used as a basis for the environmental hygiene surveys that will
be carried out with regular intervals.
The people who have carried out the survey should preferrably also work out the
results and make conclusions themselves. The survey should be adapted/improved
whenever felt necessary. The advantages of this process are:1)staff and involved
camp inhabitants will get very motivated and will improve their own skills and
knowledge, 2) you will get very important information without having to put a lot of
time and effort in it yourself, 3) the process secures that the survey will fit to the
circumstances (but be careful to leave out subjects when people think they are not
important). Programme staff can carry out the survey together with the communities
in the camp (for instance women groups, community committees or a committee
selected by the community for this purpose). Involving the camp inhabitants will
increase their motivation and sense of involvement and especially also their trust in
the programme and will contribute to better and more detailed information about the
situation and problems in each part of the camp. The people involved in the execution
of the survey should be literate if they are to write things down, but the survey can
also be organized in such a way that no writing is needed (see further on). Train the
people formulating the questions that the questions should be open (e.g. which insects
form a problem in your house, could you mention me the two problems which hamper
you most) and not closed (e.g. are mosquitoes a problem in your hut) because on the
last type of questions people will always answer what they think you want to hear
and/or give an impression that it is more serious then it really is.
When the results of a survey in an area are obtained and analysed by
and with the people it is extremely important to decide with the
people what to do to solve the problems and make plans together
with them and divide tasks between the programme and the people!
The programme should then follow-up on these plans and make sure
it carries out what it has agreed on.
How the results of the environmental survey can be documented.
A very good way of documenting the results is by asking camp inhabitants to draw a
map of their area in which they indicate with different symbols, which they can also
give different magnitudes if they want, the locations, type and extent of the
environmental hygiene problems. The map should be drawn after both discussions are
held and observations done by/together with the inhabitants of the area. Programme
staff should support this exercise by giving explanation about the use of the map, by
making a list of the problems with the highest priority
Chapter 8 : Reporting formats
p. 188
Important here is that first discussions are held. In such discussions usually many
problems come forward that are not directly water and sanitation related. These
should be noted down as well, but do not necessarily have to be included in the map.
Some advantages of this method:
 people don’t have to be literate
 people can do it themselves, including drawing of the map, making up the symbols
etc.
 the magnitude of a problem does not need to be expressed in definite terms, but
will give a good indication anyway in relative terms, making clearly visible the
differences in magnitude of the problems at the different locations.
 it gives a very clear and quick overview of all problems discovered in the area.
 it can easily be included in the reports to the head office giving a clear illustration
of the problems which can also easily be understood by someone who is not
informed completely about all the details of the programme and the circumstances
in the area.
 if used with the community in an area people can directly draw the map usually
without having to do a real survey as they are usually very familiar with the
problems in their area. It will also reflect the priorities of these people as they will
probably tend to overemphasize the problems related to these priorities in
comparison to other problems. Based on the map a discussion with the community
can be organized to further prioritize the needs and finding ways of solving the
problems in a combined programme/community effort (ask people to indicate the
numbers 1, 2 and 3 of severe problems in their area). Be careful not to promise
things or raise expectations that can not be fulfilled, especially if problems are
brought forward that do not have anything to do with water and/or sanitation issues
(see also paragraph ....). Prepare your staff for this.
An example of a map:
figure with map and symbols etc. of a part of the camp.
For his own interpretation and for reporting to higher levels programme staff and the
manager can draw an overview map of the whole camp, based on the maps drawn by
the communities in the different parts of the camp. A check will then be needed
however to compare the realtive severeness of problems as identified by the
communities in the different parts. This can be done by executing additional camp
walks by the manager together with programme staff. An example of such a map is
given in Appendix .... (the above map formed one part of it; notice the changes made).
Chapter 8 : Reporting formats
p. 189
Let staff/camp inhabitants draw a map in which they indicate the locations with
problems, using different symbols for the different problems and their severeness.
(see ‘Waterlines, vol. 15, no. 1, July 1996, p. 21-22). The magnitude can partly be
assessed by using more or less objective scoring mechanisms, but can be subjectively
be determined by the staff or camp inhabitants as well where they have to decide
together in which locations the problems are largest compared to other locations.
They should also be asked to indicate which problems should get more attention.
More detailed assessments can then, if necessary, be developed together with the staff
and/or with an expert if you feel you don’t have enough expertise yourself (e.g. when
vector problems are observed or suspected), to get better information about the
magnitude, locations and causes of those problems to enable you to develop the most
effective and efficient measures to solve these problems.
Chapter 8 : Reporting formats
p. 190
8.7.1.1.1.3
household survey
 Household survey: a survey about the practises and behaviours of camp
inhabitants related to water and sanitation in the households, combining questions
and observations. It can be developed as described for the environmental hygiene
survey but usually concentrates on issues related to the households12. During the
survey only a part of the households is visited. They are usually ad randomly
selected, for instance with the pencil-method. Appendix ... contains a more detailed
description of how a household survey can be developed, executed and analysed.
Rotate a pencil on a flat surface (e.g. a piece of carton); the hut standing nearest to
where the pencil point directs, once it has come to a stand still, is the selected hut. It is
important to do this because, often without knowing it, people would tend to choose
for a certain type of hut, for instance the biggest ones, when they would select
themselves. This could influence the outcome of the survey (e.g. in big huts probably
richer people live with other habits and problems than the people living in small huts).
/////Preferrably the issues should be discussed with the female head of the household
and the observations made in an informal way without writing down things;
afterwards the answers and observations can be worked out on paper. Formal filling in
of questionnaires and observation lists can scare people and take away their
motivation to tell everything. In practise however this is often too much of a hazzle
for the staff/camp inhabitants involved in the execution of the survey.
12
in a household survey for instance the following additional information can be determined: how and
for which purposes is the water used in the households and how much is used for each purpose, where do
households obtain their water, water quality in the household, how is water is transported (transport means, volume
of container) and stored to/in the household, which water uses do they find most important, do households further
treat the water themselves, how do households get rid of their solid waste, do they have a latrine and how do they
use it (identify differences between men, women ad children; also observe if possible), which household members
are practising open defecation (also observe!), how is cleaning of the latrines organized, how, how often and
where do people clean themselves and their laundry, do people wash their hands after going to the toilet/before
eating food, do they clean their hut and its immediate surroundings sufficiently, do they clean up faeces of children
hygienically, are they aware of disease causing factors, which diseases did they suffer of (who) recently, did
people recently die in the household, their opinions about the facilities present in the camp and how they can be
improved, which needs they feel are not fulfilled, numbers of huts with good and poor general cleanliness in and
outside, numbers of under and over fives with poor (dirty/bad quality) and good (clean/good quality) clothing,
numbers of households that cover their water pots and their food properly, numbers of households with bad
cooking practises (cooking inside hut with a lot of smoke), numbers of households with good and poor cooking
stoves ......
Chapter 8 : Reporting formats
p. 191
Annex 1 Mosquito surveys
A 1.1
Initial mosquito survey
An initial mosquito survey needs to be executed in case no mosquito control program exists yet
while there are indications that there is/could be a (potential) mosquito problem. Such indications
could for instance have been obtained through initial analysis of health data, informal and
unstructured information gathering, camp walks, environmental hygiene surveys, meetings, or
household surveys (see Chapter 3).
Actions needed
1. list the locations where mosquitoes have been observed or are suspected.
2. find out which type(s) and quantities of mosquitoes are present.
3. complete the flow diagram to analyze the problems and determine the actions
required.
Action 1 :
list the locations where mosquitoes and their larvae have been
observed or are suspected.
A first idea of the locations with mosquitoes or their larvae can be obtained by further analyzing
health data (looking for instance at the health statistics per health post, or listing the home
locations of the malaria patients in the camp if these were registered), through informal and
unstructured information gathering, or a camp walk specifically to detect the locations of
mosquitoes and larvae. The locations should be plotted on a map of the camp (especially useful
when mosquitoes are restricted to specific isolated locations). Such a map is very useful to verify
later on whether the mosquito problems have extended to other areas as well, and for purposes
such as reporting, communicating the problem with others and so on (don’t forget to put a date
on the map). It is of course also possible that the mosquitoes and/or larvae are spread equally
over the whole camp.
Simultaneously one should discuss the problems with curative health staff and ask them to take
further action from their side, such as: identification of malaria through microscopic diagnoses,
improvement of malaria diagnosis in the health posts, and so on. Don’t wait for the results
however if health statistics are worrysome.
Chapter 8 : Reporting formats
p. 193
Action 2 :
find out which type(s) and numbers of mosquitoes are present.
Execute the following methods according to their descriptions in paragraph A8.2:
 first observe at several locations the adult mosquitoes resting at surfaces and determine with
Figure A8.1 of which mosquito type they are (execute according to paragraph A8.2, method
1), then, to further verify,
 catch larvae in a few glass pots at a few locations where larvae have been found or are
suspected and determine with Figure A8.1 of which mosquito type they are (execute according
to paragraph A8.2, method 5), and then
 identify mosquito species, and determine their numbers as described in paragraph A8.2,
method 2.
Action 3 :
complete the flow diagram to analyze the problems and determine
the actions required //here only a first draft chart has been included//.
Flow chart 1
Determine types + quantities of mosquitoes
use paragraph A8.2,
methods 1,2 and 4
Are the numbers of Anopheles mosquitoes
high? (see paragraph A8.2, method 2,
for what is considered high)
Are up to date documented data
available on incidence or proportion
levels of malaria and/or 'fevers of
unknown origin'?
Could the data be inaccurate due to causes
as erratic population figures, poor
diagnosis or (method of) registration of
diseases or other causes of error?
Is it possible to
investigate this
within the possibilities
of the programme?
Request for assistance to invesstigate further (if not possible,
presume the levels are high
and develop a control program)
Are the numbers of Culicines mosquitoes
high? (see paragraph A8.2, method 2,
for what is considered high
Continue at
flow chart 3
Continue at
flow chart 2
Are any of the levels high?
(see Table ... in par. ... for what
is considered high)
Investigate and determine
or estimate the errors
and correct the
levels for them.
Assess in more detail and
design, plan and execute a
control program (preferrably
with the help of an expert)
Are any of the levels
sharply rising for
already more than 2 to 3 weeks and/or
do the levels approach 'high' levels?
convince cur. health progr. that
microscopic diagnosis is needed,
further assess the problem (pref. by
expert), decide on required action
Chapter 8 : Reporting formats
p. 194
discuss with cur. health progr.
whether microscopic diagnosis is
needed, wait 2 weeks, continuously
analyzing new health data
Continue at
flow chart 4
A 1.2
Methods to identify mosquitoes and/or
determine their numbers
The methods are:
1. Observing adult mosquitoes resting at surfaces
2. spraying and collecting adult mosquitoes
3. body trapping of adult mosquitoes
4. light trapping of adult mosquitoes
5. simple catching and identification of mosquito larvae
6. more accurate catching and identification of mosquito larvae
Method 1 : observing adult mosquitoes resting at surfaces
Find places where adult mosquitoes rest at a surface and determine with Figure A8.1
whether they are Anopheles or Culicines. If this is to be done by staff, make sure they
are well trained for this purpose and their work well controlled. Make sure to observe
mosquitoes at different locations as some species may stay more outside and others
more inside dwellings, buildings etc.
Method 2 : spraying and collecting adult mosquitoes
To estimate the number of adult mosquitoes and their rate of aggressiveness against
humans, mosquitoes at rest inside dwellings can be collected after spraying with
synthetic pyrethroids.
Equipment needed:
 white sheets or light-colored plastic sheets
 pyrethroid insecticide dissolved in water at the required concentration
 hand operated equipment for residual spraying
 small containers for storage of the caught mosquitoes
 tweezers
Collection and analysis procedure:
 execute the method between 5 and 7 in the morning, before the mosquitoes leave
the dwelling
 close all openings as well as possible
 spread the sheets on the floor of each room
 spray sufficient insecticide in each room well spread over all surfaces taking all
safety pre-cautions into account (see also Chapter ....).
 wait 10 to 15 minutes; during this time, note the number of persons who slept that
night in each room
Chapter 8 : Reporting formats
p. 195
 remove the sheets from each room, taking care that the fallen mosquitoes collect in
the middle of the sheets
 using tweezers, transfer the mosquitoes to the small storage containers (use one
container for each room)
 determine and note down per room the types of mosquitoes found (use figure ....
for the identification of mosquito types) and their numbers (fill in in the below
form).
 determine and note down per room and for each mosquito type found the numbers
of gorged mosquitoes (having blood in their abdomen; fill in in the below form).
 in case there is doubt about the correct identification of the species, and if possible,
the collected mosquitoes should be sent to a laboratory for proper species
identification.
(source: adapted from UNHCR 1997)
Number of tests needed:
The test should be carried out in ////5%//// of all dwellings or facilities that could be
invested with mosquitoes in the areas that are under suspicion. To verify if other parts
are not infested the test should also be carried out in ////1 to 3 %//// (the lower
percentage for the larger camps) of all dwellings and facilities randomly selected and
well spread over the camp.
Team organisation:
The test can be carried out by a team consisting of one sprayer, 1 team leader and .....
A team can do ... tests per day, considering the fact that one can only work during two
hours in the morning. All tests together should be carried out in a time span of
maximum ..... subsequent days. Therefore usually several teams will be needed.
The tasks of the team members and others involved:
Sprayer
 Prepare the rooms (cover with sheets etc.)
 Spray the walls as described in Box 6.4.
 Put the mosquitoes in the containers (1 container per room)
 Monitoring tasks: make sure all mosquitoes fall on the sheets on the floor, control
whether the floor is completely covered, control that all food etc. is out of the
room, control whether all openings are well closed before starting to spray. Report
to team leader in case of any problems.
Team leader
 Inform the households on beforehand and explain the purpose of the test (avoid
raising expectations!).
 Help sprayer with preparations
 Tell people to stay out of the dwelling during and till half an hour after spraying
 Monitoring tasks: control the work of the sprayer, control whether all people have
left when spraying starts, determine the type(s) of mosquitoes, their numbers and
the numbers with gorged stomachs for each room and fill in in the below form.
The following form can be used per dwelling, facility etc. investigated:
Chapter 8 : Reporting formats
p. 196
Date:
Location:
Type of dwelling/facility:
Mosquito type
Anophele
s
Culicines
Indicator
Total number of mosquitoes caught (fill in
per room)



Number of gorged mosquitoes caught (fill
in per room)



Other
types
(describe)
Total
numbers
Analysis of the results found:
If in more than ....% of the dwellings or facilities investigated the total number of one
type of mosquitoes exceeds .... or if ......., then the mosquito infestation rate is
regarded as high.
If ........ then the mosquito infestation rate is regarded as low.
If on average ....% of the mosquitoes found are gorged or in ...% of all rooms,
dwellings, facilities investigated at least ... gorged mosquitoes were found then ....
etc.
Method 3 : body trapping of adult mosquitoes
Method 4 : light trapping of adult mosquitoes
Method 5 : simple catching and identification of mosquito larvae
Chapter 8 : Reporting formats
p. 197
This method is used only for the purpose of identifying the species of mosquitoes
present in the camp.
Procedure:
1. Take a clean glass pot (white glass so that you can easily look from the side into
the water in the pot).
2. Use the pot to scoop water out of the source where you expect the larvae to be. In
wide bodies of water the larvae will usually be mainly along the edges. Larvae of
the Anopheles are usually only in reasonably unpolluted water such as swamps,
still water and containers. Larvae of the Culicines sort may be found both in clean
and in organically polluted waters. Make notes of the locations and types of the
waters (polluted? Large pond, container?) in which you found the larvae (describe
which larvae types you found in which waters) as this may be useful information
for more accurate identification of the mosquito species and the design of a control
program later on.
3. Look from the side into the pot and identify what larvae species are in it (use figure
.... for this purpose).
Organization:
The test can be executed by any staff or by the manager himself. The manager should
control though that staff execute the identification of the species correctly.
Method 6 : more accurate catching and identification of mosquito
larvae
If there is a need (for instance in case of doubt about the identification of the mosquito
larvae as done with method 4 or if it is suspected that there are other species than
Anopheles and Culicines as well) and if there is also a possibility to send the larvae to
a laboratory for more accurate identification of the species the following procedure
can be followed:
Equipment needed:
 a fine sieve with a long handle
 a light-colored basin
 a large diameter pipette
 bottles containing 70% ethyl alcohol or 4% formol
Larval sampling procedure:
 filter the collected water through the sieve
 pour the collected material into the basin containing clear water
 use the pipette to transfer the larvae to the bottles containing 70% ethyl alcohol or
4% formol
 send the collected specimens to the laboratory for species identification.
Chapter 8 : Reporting formats
p. 198
Figure : Identification of mosquitoes
//////Put here: the figure of Appendix 3 at page 116 of ‘Disease prevention through
vector control; OXFAM Practical Health Guide No. 10’//////
Chapter 8 : Reporting formats
p. 199
Annex 2 An example of a monthly report
The report seems on first sight quite labour intensive to set up. This is true, but once it
has been properly done the first time the same structure can be followed each month
which will only take a marginal amount of time. For instance the ‘background’
section will only need to be changed on a few small things each month (the reason to
include this section each time is to give the reader who is not familiar with the
specific circumstances and who has read no other reports a reasonable overview; it is
also useful for readers who are familiar with the programme but who have to deal
with many other programmes as well, e.g. support staff at the head-office, that it is
good for them to have a small section in each report to fresh up their knowledge of the
programme). The ‘programme developments and problems’ section will each month
largely contain the same elements and only the details per element will need to be
changed each time. To a certain extent the same can be said for the other sections. The
numbers in the margins in the below example report refer to the overview of subjects
recommended for inclusion in monthly reports in paragraph ….
Monthly report of the environmental health programme
in Kibeho camp
Date :
Author :
Programme parts :
Country :
31-03-95 (week 13)
Tom de Veer
family latrines, public latrines, hygiene education,
vector control in latrines, solid waste, road drainage,
camp lay-out
Rwanda
Summary
This month (March 1995) the camp population grew from 85.000 to 105.000 mainly
due to closure of other camps and some incidents in a number of nearby villages. In
Kibeho there were no security problems. The current number of family pit latrines
is 1.800 (about 55 persons per latrine), which is more than was aimed at last month
but which is still too low because of the high influx of new people in the camp. An
environmental survey was executed by the hygienists (group discussions with the
people, observations and map drawing by the people indicating and prioritizing their
problems; see summary map).The general environmental hygiene situation is alright
and open defecation is virtually non-existent. People would like to have public
kitchens. Problems of the highest priority as indicated by the people: lack of
sheeting for the huts, insufficient pots for cooking, difficulty to find wood for
cooking. Solid waste is no problem in the households and neither at public places.
Morbidity and mortality are low and still going down. Hygiene behaviour seems OK,
although no good information is available and handwashing still seems to be a
problem issue. Problems seem to exist as well with stealing of tools and soap. The
subjects that need attention: latrine coverage, road drainage, effectiveness of
spraying latrines, effectiveness of hygiene education, vector problems in the
households, new hygienists in areas with new arrivals, stealing by staff. Activities
planned for next month: motivation of especially new arrivals to build a latrine
Chapter 8 : Reporting formats
p. 200
(aim: 45 persons per latrine by the end of next month), develop and execute a
household survey covering hygiene behaviour aspects and insect problems in the huts,
facilitate selection of 5 hygienists by new arrivals, improve drainage along 400 m of
road and at 2 important road crossings, and build 2 more culverts, set-up a monitoring
system for the effectiveness of spraying latrines, increase slab production, solve
problems of stealing by improving the administrative and control structures, look into
problems prioritized by the people.
Background
After the genocide in 1994 many Hutu’s crossed the border to neighbouring countries,
but about 300.000 fled to the by French and later UN military protected zone in the
Gikongoro and Butare region. Kibeho developed as the largest of 9 camps in this
area. It is divided in 5 parts: Uwarurayi, Mpunge, Gakoma-Viro, Kibeho-site, and
Nyarushishi. Several of the other camps have now been closed and more and more
people are settling in Kibeho. Up to date the area has been relatively calm. UN
military have a permanent basis in the camp. The area is hilly, with sandy clay soils,
two rainy seasons, rivers in the valleys. Access is by dirt roads which are in
reasonable condition although during the rainy seasons usually heavy trafic becomes
more difficult. OXFAM, as one of the agencies active in Kibeho, has been responsible
for the water programme since the earliest days together with UNICEF, and took over
the environmental health programme from MSF-France in November 1994.
The general objective of the environmental health programme is:
To secure environmentally hygienic conditions through good toilet and solid waste
facilities, hygiene education and a proper camp lay-out.
Programme parts and their specific objectives are:
Family latrines. IDP’s are motivated by hygienists and sanitation workers to
construct their own latrine in ‘sanitation corridors’ between the huts on the hills.
Often several families own one latrine. People get a wooden slab when they have dug
the hole and some pieces of soap once they have properly finished the latrine (this is
controlled by sanitation workers). Objectives: everybody has acces to and makes
hygienically use of a pit latrine,1 latrine of good quality (see standard design in the
end of duty report of ...) per 25 persons, latrines are kept clean and slab holes are
always covered with lids, full latrines are covered with sufficient sand and new
latrines are built to replace them.
Public latrines. Built at public places, e.g. markets, hospital etc. Objective: at least
one well functioning public latrine per public place which is well cleaned and used,
no lining up of people.
Solid waste. Families are motivated by hygienists to bury solid waste. At markets
large holes are dug and solid waste is collected by workers who are paid by the
merchants. Objectives: 1 pit/family and all household rubbish burried in it
hygienically, sufficient large pits per market and all market rubbish burried in them
hygienically.
Hygiene education. Provided by hygienists who transmit a number of messages to
the people in their area (through group and individual discussions). The hygienists
also execute a theatre performance once a week in which the hygiene messages are
brought forward in a humorous way, based on the local circumstances (very popular).
Objectives: assure appropriate hygiene education leading to a sustained improved
hygiene behaviour (also when coming back home).
Vector control in latrines. Latrines are sprayed with a 1: .... solution of deltamethrin
(original strength: ....) once every ... weeks. The effectiveness of this activity is
Chapter 8 : Reporting formats
p. 201
doubtful however as flies are often observed in the latrines again after 2 to 3 days.
Objective: ensure that the fly problems in latrines are kept within acceptable limits.
Camp lay-out. Sanitation workers prepare sites for hut construction, explain people
where they can built their hut and where and how they can construct a latrine (in
sanitation corridors). Objectives: no huts in sanitation corridors, proper lay-out of huts
and roads, assuring proper accessibility, drainage, prevention of erosion and so on.
Programme developments and problems
Environmental hygiene situation: an environmental hygiene survey was developed
with/by the hygienists and executed at the different sites of the camp together with the
people (issues included: latrines and defecation, solid waste, drainage, quality of huts,
vector problems, erosion). Conclusions: open defecation is virtually absent; the road
towards Gakoma market and some other sites are severely flooded during rains,
endangering quite a number of huts as well and causing severe erosion; in some
places diarrhoea was observed; several places have severe shortage of latrines or are
of poor quality or have poor hygiene, many huts lack sheeting, insects are a problem
in huts and latrines. Despite these problems, for large part observed in Kibeho-site
where there are many new arrivals, the overall environmental hygiene situation is
alright (see also the summary map further on).
Morbidity and mortality: the figures are low (normal figures for these parts of
Africa), no problem.
Camp population: growing fast due to closure of other camps and unrest in a number
of nearby villages. Therefore the numbers of hygienists, latrines, digging tools, soap
and wood for slabs are too low.
Hygiene education: the theatre performances attracted many people who were all
very enthousiastic. The hygienists seem motivated for the work they do in their areas
and for the theatre they perform twice a week for audiences of often more than a
thousand persons. The effects of hygiene education are not fully known although the
hygienists have indicated that washing hands after going to the toilet is still hardly
practised despite their efforts to make people aware of the importance of it. It is not
known whether the hygiene messages are transmitted effectively, whether the right
messages are transmitted, and whether they result in imporved hygiene behaviour.
Other programmes: the water programmes seem to have problems which could possibly affect the amount of clean water available to the people in the next coming
weeks (see reports of the water programmes). Currently the amount of water is still
sufficient.
Solid waste: fully under control since at the central market the last hole is dug. The
merchants really pay the cleaners while the programme provides tools.
Materials and consumables: the amount of soap is insufficient (therefore people
should be informed about the possibility to wash hands with ashes). Some staff stated
that digging tools and soap were being stolen which was confirmed by a check of the
administration.
Vector control: there is doubt about the effectiveness of spraying latrines, insects
seem to be a problem as well in people’s huts and clothes.
Latrines: one public latrine was repaired after being destroyed by a large rain shower.
The number of private pit latrines is too low; see also the statistics.
Chapter 8 : Reporting formats
p. 202
Statistics
Planning for next month
Especially in Kibeho-site, but also in Uwarurayi there are many new arrivals. It is
necessary in these areas to increase motivation to build latrines as the current
coverage in some of these parts is as low as 1 latrine per 100 persons. Therefore large
meetings will be held with the people in these areas to discuss their problems and
motivate them to build latrines. An effort will be made to let new arrivals choose a
total of 5 new hygienists among themselves. These will be trained and initially
accompanied during their work by more experienced hygienists. Latrine slab
production will be increased and ICRC will be requested to donate more soap for
distribution to those who have finished their latrine. The aim is to have an average
coverage by the end of the coming month of 1 latrine per 45 persons. Other activities
will include: develop and execute a household survey covering hygiene behaviour
aspects and insect problems in the huts, improve drainage along 400 m of road and at
2 important road crossings, and build 2 more culverts, set-up a monitoring system for
the effectiveness of spraying latrines, solve problems of stealing by improving the
administrative and control structures, assess in more detail what can be done and by
who about the problems prioritized by the people and make sure the people get feedback about this.
Chapter 8 : Reporting formats
p. 203
Annex 3 Diseases that may be found in camps and
which are or may be related to water supply and/or
environmental hygiene
 Diarrheal diseases (acute watery diarrhea, dysentery, cholera)
 Fevers (malaria, yellow fever, dengue, relapsing fever, typhus?, etc. etc.)
 Pneumonial diseases (upper and lower respiratory tract infections): people sick
due to cold and wet circumstances. Can be major disease and mortality cause in
camps.
 Tuberculosis
 Eye infections
 Skin infections (scabies)
 Hepatitis A
 Meningitis
 Measles
 Worms in feces (causes nuisance and probably makes people, especially children,
weaker. Problem: in camps ‘worms’ is often not diagnosed/taken up in health
statistics).
 Soil transmitted diseases (roundworm) that enter bare feet esp. in dirty
latrines and areas with open defecation. Often not diagnosed/taken up in
health statistics in camps though.
 ///Beef and pork tapeworms. transmitted by ingestion of beef or pork that has not
been sufficiently cooked (problem: in camps not diagnosed and thus no info in
health statistics). What are the symptoms????///
 Schistosomiasis (water based). usually not critical in the short term. Not
included here.
A 3.1
Diarrheal diseases
A distinction is usually made between acute watery diarrhea, dysentery and cholera.
Acute watery diarrhea can be caused by different organisms transmitted through
polluted water, contaminated food, fecal-oral routes etc. Symptoms: loose or watery
stools (usually several per day) resulting in dehydration which can, if the patient is not
rehydrated in time, cause death, especially in children. Treatment: is let the patient
drink sufficient and, if possible, clean water, preferably with dissolved Oral
Rehydration Salts (ORS) to increase the effectiveness of the rehydration.
Dysentery is a diarrhea with visible blood in the stool. It is therefore also often
called ‘bloody diarrhea’. The two major types are caused by amoeba and shigella
bacils entering the body through contaminated water, food or fecal-oral transmission.
The latter type (shigellosis) represents the greater health risk. It is endemic in many
poor communities, and can occur in epidemic outbreaks, especially in conditions of
overcrowding and bad sanitation. Curative treatment can be done with antibiotics,
although resistance of the shigella bacillus against the drugs often develops.
Chapter 8 : Reporting formats
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Cholera is a diarrheal disease transmitted through the Cholera Vibrio bacterium
transmitted by the fecal-oral route. It can spread extremely quickly. Symptoms are
large amounts of very watery stools and vomiting, which, if patients are not quickly
rehydrated with water and if possible dissolved ORS, can lead to death due to
dehydration within hours. Often there is one or a small number of sources from which
the disease is spread. It is the task of the watsan manager to find the sources and
causes of cholera and eliminate them. The watsan programme will also often be
responsible for buidling cholera centres, providing proper watsan facilities in these
centres, including the required disinfection measures, and even the complete
management of such centres.
A 3.2
Fevers
Fevers distinguished in camps are usually malaria, yellow fever and dengue. The last
two belong to a group of viral caused fevers, the viral haemorrhagic fevers. As proper
diagnosis is difficult the diseases are often registered in health posts as ‘Fever of
Unknown Origin’ (FUO).
Malaria is transmitted by female Anopheles mosquitoes that bite in the evening or
by night and breed in still and unpolluted water. Symptoms are intermittent fever, .....
Proper diagnosis is by microscopic blood film examination. Malaria is most prevalent
usually in areas where circumstances are optimal for Anopheles mosquitoes: small
pools of clean and still water, humid and hot. Preventive measures: proper siting of
the camp, closing water pools, bednets, residual spraying, preventive drugs.
FUO (Fever of Unknown Origin) is a group heading for all diseases diagnosed with
fever but of which the origin is not known. In many health centres patients diagnosed
with ‘FUO’ are treated as malaria patients while often only a fraction of these patients
really has malaria (often only 10 to 35% of all FUO and ‘suspected’ malaria
registrations really is malaria).
Viral haemorrhagic fevers are caused by a number of different viruses (see
Table ... below), some of which are associated with rodents or mosquitoes.
Symptoms: unexplained and unresponsive high fever, especially with bleeding
(haemorrhagic) tendency. All VHF are capable of causing severe and fatal disease.
They have a high epidemic potential and high case-fatality rates. Some of them, e.g.
Ebola and Lassa Fever, are often transmitted in health facilities, for instance because
of the re-use of non-sterile needles and inadequate barrier nursing precautions. Yellow
fever and Dengue are usually the most frequent diseases. Both diseases can enter into
a new area when infected people arrive there and are bitten by Aedes (mainly Aedes
aegypti) mosquitoes (who will then start to transmit the disease further). Early
detection of VHF is often missed by a routine surveillance system (e.g. because
wrongly diagnosed as malaria or FUO; sometimes also resistant malaria can be
wrongly diagnosed as Yellow Fever). Therefore it is necessary to have an idea about
occurrence of VHF in the area (obtain info from local or regional health authorities).
People can also bring the disease with them from outside the camp though. Preventive
measures: vaccination, especially against Yellow Fever (to be started immediately
after the first case is confirmed), and Rift Valley Fever (usually only provided to
Chapter 8 : Reporting formats
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people at high risk, e.g. staff); vector control to prevent transmission of VHF by
mosquitoes, rodent or ticks (application of larvicides and spraying shelters to fight
Aedes aegypti is often very effective against Yellow Fever), precautions in health
facilties, isolation of cases, minimizing the handling of dead bodies, and provision of
information to health staff, refugees and others involved, proper soldi waste disposal.
The diseases transmitted by Aedes mosquitoes can not be prevented by bednets as
these mosquitoes bite during the day!
VHF
Distribution
Natural host / vector
Lassa Fever
Central / West Africa
rodents (urine)
Junin/Machupo
South America
rodents (urine)
Ebola/Marburg
Central / South Africa
unknown
Crimean-Congo HF
Africa / Asia
ticks
Rift Valley Fever
Africa
mosquitoes
Dengue HF
Africa/Americas/Pacific/Europe/Australi
a
mosquitoes
Yellow Fever
mosquitoes
Africa / South America
HF with Renal
Syndrome
rodents (saliva and urine)
Asia / Europe
Japanese encephalitis
Caused by a virus transmitted mainly by Culex mosquitoes. One to two months after
the onset of the rainy season is a common time for epidemics to start. Found in east,
south-east and south Asia. In endemic areas incidence rates reach 1-10/10.000/year.
Mainly affects children.. Every symptomatic case may hide up to 200 nonsymptomatic cases. Case fatality rate is high: 25% (elderly up to 60%). Some 30% of
cases are left with neurological disorders. Risk in camps in endemic areas is high,
especially in rural areas, e.g. near rice fields during mosquitoe breeding time and
among non-immune people. Symptoms same as encephalitis. The disease may be
expected if 5 to 10 cases of meningo-encephalitis in same neighbourhood esp. in areas
of unknown transmission. Prevention: destroying mosquitoe breeding sites by
spraying is very effective; also bednets and spraying of shelters; some vaccins can be
used (but several vaccinations needed, expensive and having side effects).
Typhus fever
Caused by a //bacteria??//, Rickettsiae, transmitted through vectors such a lice, fleas
or mites. Symptoms: fever.
Louse-borne typhus exists among louse-infected people. Transmission is
enhanced by overcrowding and poor hygiene, especially during the rainy season when
Chapter 8 : Reporting formats
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more clothing and blankets are used. Case fatality varies from 10 to 40% and can rise
above 50% in the elderly. In high risk areas, new arrivals should be screened for the
presence of lice on arrival or in OPD’s. Prevention: delousing campaign and hygienic
measures (as described for Relapsing fever).
Murine typhus is caused by fleas hosted by rats. Mostly in urban settings. Usually
not a priority in emergencies as mortality is low (case fatality rate < 1%). Prevention:
first eliminate fleas, then rats.
Scrub typhus is caused by mites. Endemic in small areas, mainly in Asia (‘typhus
islands’). Case fatality is often high (up to 60%), pregnant women abort and die. In
camps only a danger if located close to a ‘typhus island’. Prevention: elimination of
mites, locating camps far from typhus islands, and if not avoidable, clear vegetation,
spray the ground and impregnate clothing and blankets with insecticides.
Relapsing fever
A 3.3
Pneumonial diseases
(upper and lower respiratory tract infections)
mm
Tuberculosis
Eye infections
A 3.4
Skin infections
(scabies)
A 3.5
Hepatitis A and E
These are both viral infections transmitted by feco-oral routes. Symptoms: any accute
onset of jaundice by nausea, vomiting or anorexia, with or without fever, and no
history of recent treatment with drugs causing jaundice. One should be aware though
that often other diseases with similar symptoms (e.g. yellow fever) are misinterpreted,
being diagnosed as Hepatitis. People infected with Hepatitis A usually recover
without medical aid. Mortality is usually low. Hepatitis E is known to cause high
mortality in pregant women but only low mortality in other people. Hepatitis A is
often common where sanitation is poor. It mainly occurs at an early age; adults are
usually immune. Transmission of the disease is especially enhanced by large
concentrations of people with overcrowding, inadequate sanitation and poor water
supply. Hepatitis E occurs primarily in areas with inadequate environmental sanitation
Chapter 8 : Reporting formats
p. 207
and is often associated with poor water supply. Preventive measures mostly involve
ensuring an adequate water supply and good sanitation. For Hepatitis A also a
vaccination exists which however is usually not used as an outbreak control measure
because protection is only obtained 30 days after the first dose, the vaccin is
expensive and the disease not severe while curing spontaneously in most cases. For
Hepatitis E no vaccine exists.
A 3.6
Meningitis
Meningitis is mainly caused by the bacteria meningococcus which is spread through
///contaminated food, through the air and through water????///. Symptoms are fever
with bulging fontanel (??) among children under 12 months and sudden onset of fever
with stiff neck and/or petechial or purpural rash (??) among older people. The disease
can quickly develop into an epidemic. Factors enlarging the risk for an epidemic are
overcrowding, poor hygiene and limited access to medical care (vaccinations), all of
which are often apparent in camps. People under 30 years of age are most at risk
(usually comprising 80% of the victims). The case fatality rate is 70% when no proper
treatment is available and 5-15% with proper curative treatment. Routine vaccination
is usually not executed because of the huge resources needed. Instead vaccination is
usually started if an outbreak is suspected. To detect a potential outbreak at the
earliest possible stage therefore medical programs in camps should always take up
meningitis surveillance standardly in their routine surveillance system. The disease is
defined to be an epidemic if there are 15 cases/100.000 persons/week during 2
consecutive weeks (for camps > 30.000 persons but not for extremely large camps as
a low overall attack rate may obscure high rates within smaller population groups) or
2 consecutive doublings of meningitis cases from one week to the next over a three
week period (for camps < 30.000 persons). In camps next to an epidemic area or in
urban settlements 5 cases/100.000 persons/week is used. ///Measures that should be
taken to prevent a meningitis epidemic are: spreading of population, improvement of
hygiene and hygiene behaviour, and vaccinations if the potential for meningitis is
believed to be high.////
A 3.7
Measles
Chapter 8 : Reporting formats
p. 208
Annex 4 Recommended minimum standards
Water quantity
Subject
general
person
Emergency
Non-emergency


Water quantity is more important than water quality
Water availability must be: (water needed for people, including personal needs, health centres,
feeding centres etc. + water needed for livestock + if possible other water uses) x 110%. Give
account to increases in population and livestock numbers in the near future (coming weeks to
months). Assure sufficient clean water for people, esp. for drinking
 For livestock, irrigation, laundry, personal cleanliness, washing dishes, household cleaning,
water of less quality can be used
3-5 l/person/day . 3 min cold wheather, 5 min hot wheather
health centre/hospital outpatients
health centre/hospital inpatients
cholera centre in-patients
Feeding centre therapeutic
feeding
Feeding centre
supplemetary feeding
Surgery/maternity
Kitchen in health facility
Family latrines
5 l/patient/day
10-20 l/person/day, depending on water availability, water use culture, climate
etc.
5 l/patient/day
40-60 l/patient/day
40-60 l/patient/day
60 l/patient/day
?
60 l/patient/day
30 l/patient/day
?
15 l/patient/day
100 l/patient/day
10 l/patient/day
none
Defecation field
Communal trench latrines
none
none
pour-flush latrine (1-4
l/flush)
conventional flush (10-20
l/flush)
Schools
don’t apply in emergencies, especially not when water is scarce and/or difficult to obtain
100 l/patient/day
10 l/patient/day
2-8 l/cubicle/day for cleaning latrine ?
1-2 l/user/day for handwashing ?
1-2 l/user/day for handwashing ?
2-8 l/cubicle/day for cleaning ?
2-8 l/m of trench/day for cleaning latirne ?
1-2 l/user/day for handwashing ?
2-8 l/user/day
don’t apply in emergencies, especially not when water is scarce and/or difficult to obtain
20-50 l/user/day
none
10-15 l/cubicle/day for cleaning the latrine
1-2 l/user/day for handwashing
Chapter 8 : Reporting formats
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Mosques
Other communal units
Offices
Aid staff
cattle
donkeys, mules, horses
Pigs
Chicken
sheep, goats
camels
irrigation
none
none
none
30 l/person/day
20-40 l/head/day ??
10-40 l/head/day ??
1-5 l/head/day ??
40-90 l/head/day ??
In an emergency usually not a priority , especially if water is scarce. Therefore only apply if drinking
water requirements are covered and sufficient water is available for irrigation . If irrigation possible:
3-9 mm/day or 0.3 to 1 l/sec./ha, depending on climate, crop type and soil type.
Water quality
non-emergency
Subject
emergency
Need for
disinfection
Faecal coliform
expressed in FC
(= thermotolerant
coliform = E.coli)
Disinfect all waters if possible, especially if possibly contaminated or no proof available of
water quality.
Chlorinated water: no need to measure faecal coliforms if a sufficient residual free chlorine
level is available
Conductivity
Odour
Colour
pH
Turbidity
Residual free
chlorine
+ personal demands ?
5 l/person/day ?
5 l/person/day ?
5 l/person/day ?
80 l/person/day
20-40 l/head/day ?
10-40 l/head/day ?
?
20 l/100 chicken/day?
1-5 l/head/day?
40-90 l/head/day ?
3-6 mm/day or 0.3 to 1.0 l/sec./ha
Not chlorinated (or otherwise disinfected water) or chlorinated water with a too low residual
free chlorine level: < 1000 FC/100 ml both in households and at watercollection points (for
drinking water for people). No restrictions for water used by livestock, water for laundry,
personal cleanliness, washing dishes, and household cleaning
< 4000 uS/cm ??
no restrictions
no restrictions
6<pH<9.5 (if disinfection is needed pH should preferrrably be lower than 8.5)
< 20 NTU
If turbidity > 20 NTU pre-treatment is required, i.e. eliminating suspended matter before
chlorination
Beginning of chain (just after chlorination): high enough (measure after contact time of 30
min.) to assure a residual free chlorine level at the water points of 0,3-0,6 mg/l (if this turns out
to be more than 1,0 mg/l check for contamination entering in the system’s chain after
chlorination).
Disinfect all waters if possible, especially if possibly contaminated or no proof available of water quality.
Chlorinated water: no need to measure faecal coliforms if a sufficient residual free chlorine level is available
Not chlorinated (or otherwise disinfected water) or chlorinated water with a too low residual free chlorine level: < 10
FC/100 ml (for drinking water for people). No restrictions for water used by livestock, and to some extent for water for
washing/bathing ????.
< 1400 uS/cm ??
must be acceptable to the users
must be acceptable to the users
6<pH<8 if coagulation with aluminium sulphate is needed.
< 8 if disinfection is needed
< 5 NTU
< 1 NTU if disinfection is done/needed
Beginning of chain (just after chlorination): high enough (measure after contact time of 30 min.) to assure a residual free
chlorine level at the water points of 0,3-0,6 mg/l (if this turns out to be more than 1,0 mg/l check for contamination
entering in the system’s chain after chlorination).
At the water collection points: 0,3-0,6 mg/l.
At the water collection points: 0,3-0,6 mg/l.
In the households: 0,2-0,5 mg/l just after collection from water point.
Other parameters
In the households: 0,2-0,5 mg/l just after collection from water point.
Only monitor other parameters which have been found to be a (potential) problem and use the
Only monitor other parameters which have been found to be a (potential) problem and use the maximum values as
Chapter 8 : Reporting formats
p. 210
maximum values as indicated in House and Reed 1997, p. 172-173
Water
accessibility
walking distance /time
to/from water point
Davis
and
Lambert
1995
MSF-F 1997
not more than
150 m
care should be taken that water
points are installed at a
reasonable distance from shelters
for sfaety reasons (minimum of
30 m)
Maximum distance
between water collection
points
Maximum number of
people per handpump
Maximum number of
people per tapstand
Maximum number of
people per well
Maximum number of
people per water
collection point
Maximum number of
users per tap
number of taps per
tapstand
Maximum waiting time at
water collection point
Minimum flow from tap
500-750
indicated in House and Reed 1997, p. 172-173
MSF-H
1995
200-250
500 m (or
15 min.
walking)
Do not use as a standard. Often people are scattered over small areas and you can’t give a
standard for the distance between water collection points in such situations.
600
for tapstand with 8 taps with enough flow: 2000
for tapstand with 6 taps with enough flow: 1500
for handpump: ??
for well: ?
for capped spring: ... persons if flow is ... - ..., ... persons if flow is higher
200-250
(e.g. tapstand with 8 taps, 5 l/min./tap, yields 2.400 l/hour, use of tapstand during 12 hours a
day will give a total of 28.800 l which is with 2000 people 14,4 l/person, which is much
more than the minimum required amount of 5 l/person per day. 2000 is also equalling the
number of taps per tapstand times the number of people per tap as found in most guidelines.
250
200-250
6 to 8
< 2 hours
Literature source
Adams 97
Proposal
average collection time
less than 15 to 30 ??
minutes per 10 l
maximum distance from a
water point is 200 - 500
metres
250
250
ACF
95-96
6
8
avoid queuing
at water points
the number of water points should
be increased if the outflow is
insufficient (< 5 l/minute/tap) in
5 l/minute
Chapter 8 : Reporting formats
p. 211
order to speed up the water
distribution
Number of water
collection points/size of
water system
number sized
to meet peak
demand
Chapter 8 : Reporting formats
p. 212
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