Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma Chapter 3: Ways of knowing – Language (p. 47) Language is one of the four ways of knowing: Perception Language Emotion Reason Language enables us to tap into the collective experience of the community. It is a form of communication that is: governed by arbitrary rules of grammar expressed orally as sounds linking to objects or concepts intended used creatively to communicate vast numbers of ideas. Problems with language: deceit manipulation (e.g. propaganda) misunderstanding The problem of meaning (p. 51) We need to understand the meaning of language before its truth can be assessed. Discussion: Activity 3.5, p. 51 Theories of meaning (pp. 52–5) Theory Problems of meaning Definition theory Words can be defined using other words. Denotation theory Meaningful words stand for something. Image theory The meaning of a word is the mental image it stands for. Know-how You know the meaning of a word when you know how to use it. © Cambridge University Press 2011 May not adequately express deeper meaning. May just raise more problems of interpretation of the words used in the definition. Abstract words do not stand for any thing in the world, e.g. ‘multiplication’, ‘wisdom’. People’s names would be meaningless after they are dead. Different people may unknowingly have different mental images. Different people know how to use the same words in different ways. Page 1 of 6 Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma Discussions: Activities 3.7 and 3.8, pp. 54, 55 Problematic meaning (pp. 55–8) We sometimes do not say exactly what we mean. Problematic meaning types Problems of meaning Vagueness Meaning depends on context. e.g. fast, beautiful Ambiguity Either: words with two different meanings Discussion: Activity 3.9, p. 55 Can be used to amuse or mislead. Discussion: Activity 3.10, p. 56 or: phrases that can be read in two ways ! All the rest of this list may be considered to be different forms of ambiguity. Secondary meaning (connotation) (Note: primary meaning = denotation) A word may have a number of associations linked to it, varying from person to person, e.g. ‘school’. We may use euphemisms to avoid nasty ideas, e.g. ‘passed away’ rather than ‘died’. Discussion: Activity 3.11, p. 57 Metaphor Can be confusing. The literal meaning of a word or phrase is not the intended meaning, e.g. ‘He has his head in the clouds.’ Discussion: Activity 3.12, p. 58 Irony Can be confusing. Saying one thing but meaning the opposite. Why care about the meaning of words? (pp. 59–60) Examples: The difference between murder and manslaughter can mean a life or death sentence for the accused. To reduce unemployment or poverty, the authorities may redefine the words, thus changing statistics. © Cambridge University Press 2011 Page 2 of 6 Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma Language and translation (pp. 61–4) Translations should be: faithful to the original text comprehensible back-translatable with consistency. Problems with translation: Different languages divide the world up in different ways. Word-for-word translations often don’t make sense. Different choices of words can cause subtle differences in meaning. Context can change the meaning of a word. Some words are untranslatable. Meaning can be lost in translation. Idioms: some expressions/sayings have a meaning other than the direct word meaning, e.g. ‘I was over the moon.’ Discussion: Activity 3.15, p. 62 Labels and stereotypes (pp. 64–7) Language affects the way we think and hence the judgements we make. Use of labels (words) to classify things, e.g. apples, sand: can be efficient may reflect natural classifications or cultural impositions on the world. Problems: Differences that are not immediately apparent may be overlooked. Adjectives paint inefficient verbal portraits. Labels may develop into stereotypes, e.g. assumptions about members of groups of people. Discussions: Activities 3.17, 3.18 and 3.19, pp. 65, 66 Language and thought (pp. 68–71) To what extent does language influence our thinking? The Sapir–Whorf hypothesis (linguistic determinism) Edward Sapir (1884–1939), Benjamin Whorf (1879–1941) Language determines our experience of reality → our perception is limited by language. (However, it can be argued that reality determines language.) © Cambridge University Press 2011 Page 3 of 6 Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma Examples: The Inuit are said to have many words for snow, so they see and experience snow-covered landscapes differently from other people. The North American Hopi Indians have no words for present, past, future. Whorf therefore came to the conclusion that the Hopi have no concept of abstract time. Testing the hypothesis: For: Peter Farb (1929–80) interviewed Japanese wives of Americans living in the USA in Japanese and in English. Their responses to the same questions asked and answered in Japanese/English were different. Multiplication would be mentally impossible using Roman numerals: a symbol for zero and positional notation are needed to be able to do it. Against: Babies and animals can think without language. Some people claim to think in images (which may be an effort to put into words). If language determines thought, new words could not arise. A weaker form of the hypothesis could be: language influences thought. Language and values (pp. 71–2) Language is used to persuade/influence. Discussions: Activities 3.22 and 3.23, p. 72 (3.22 is particularly useful) Using language to influence and persuade (pp. 73–4) 1 Emotionally laden language Some words can have negative or positive connotations, which affect the way they are used. Discussion: Activity 3.24, p. 73 2 Weasel words Words added to a sentence to protect accuracy, e.g. ‘most dogs bark’. Discussion: Activity 3.25, p. 74 © Cambridge University Press 2011 Page 4 of 6 Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma 3 Grammar Use of passive sentence constructions to protect the speaker, e.g. ‘We bombed the village’ / ‘The village was bombed’. 4 Revealing and concealing E.g. ‘I have invited a blonde/cellist/athlete/lesbian to the party.’ Each description carries different connotations and is likely to affect the way others may view the person in question. Discussion: Activity 3.26, p. 74 Language at war (p. 75) Soldiers are more likely to kill enemies who are dehumanised, e.g. ‘turkey shoot’, ‘Gooks’. Alternative words are used to make war more acceptable: Warspeak Real meaning security assistance arms sales neutralise/take out kill/destroy no longer a factor dead inoperative combat personnel dead soldiers service a target drop bombs on a target collateral damage bombed cities friendly fire accidentally firing on your own troops strategic redeployment retreat liberate invade reporting guidelines censorship pre-emptive unprovoked ethnic cleansing genocide Language is power; hence the use of ‘spin doctors’ (p. 76). © Cambridge University Press 2011 Page 5 of 6 Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma See also: Linking questions: p. 78 Reading resources: (Teachers may wish to set their own assignments on these.) Dialogue on animal language p. 79 The day a language died p. 83 © Cambridge University Press 2011 Page 6 of 6