Questions to Think About
Before you can implement this Key Component, your stakeholders will need to consider some or all of these questions. The questions could be used
in group discussions, needs sensing activities, and informal small-group conversations.
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How do teachers currently support understanding of text structures as part of content area instruction?
How would planning and teaching change if the strategies described were common practice? How would they remain the same?
What are the existing barriers to incorporating more of a literacy-focused approach to content area teaching and learning?
What needs to happen to address these barriers?
Text Structure
Introduction
One common characteristic of expository texts is that they use text structures. Text structure refers to
the semantic and syntactic organizational arrangements used to present written information. For
example, arguments in a sequence are constructed in a chain, while arguments in a well-constructed
compare-contrast text are linked back and forth from one object of comparison to the other. The visual
markers of a text that show a sequence (e.g., numbers, a timeline) are different from those of a
comparison (e.g., a table, columns). Different structures may have specific key words/phrases that
signal their presence (e.g., "first, second, …" or "as a result…"). Texts that are constructed according to
text structure conventions are easier to read, understand, and remember.
General Strategies
English language arts and content area standards expect middle school students to recognize text
structures such as the following: sequence, description, compare-contrast, cause/effect, problemsolution, and persuasion. Teachers can help students identify text structures in reading as a way to
make the text easier to understand. They can also help students use text structures to organize their
writing. The following research-based teaching strategies can be applied in teaching students to use
text structure:
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Provide explicit instruction. For example, the teacher shows students specifically how and
when to use strategies such as attending to signal words while reading different content areas or
using signal words when writing expository text.
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Scaffold instruction. For example, the teacher helps students by providing some clues and
supports as they attempt to identify the text structures in various texts. One clue might be to
provide students with examples of situations where these text structures are most commonly
used.
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Model the use of strategies. For example, while students watch, the teacher writes a
paragraph using a particular text structure and describes her actions as she is writing.
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Model a think-aloud strategy. This strategy is best used by the teacher as part of a modeling
process, as described above. In addition, the students are encouraged to talk aloud as they
engage in the processes. For example, the teacher asks students to talk about the clues in a
given text as they try to identify the text structure.
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Ask focusing questions. Teachers can use focusing questions as a means of scaffolding the
use of strategies or assisting students in the think-aloud process. For example, the teacher asks
a student which signal word might be best to show a particular relationship among ideas in a
text structure.
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Use and create graphic organizers. For example, the teacher models charting the structure
of specific paragraphs while reading and also provides practice in using the graphic organizer to
write different text genres.
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Use guidelines for pattern guides and
(www.pasd.com/PSSA/reading/pdf/rihand13.pdf) teacher-made organizers. These tools help
students focus on the key elements of the reading selection.
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Introduce and work on patterns in this order: sequencing, cause/effect, and comparecontrast.
Words That Signal a Text's Organizational Structure
If your students are struggling with how to organize their notes to answer their research
question(s) or how to make sense of what they're reading, you can better equip your students for
either task by increasing their sensitivity to particular words.
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In the case of a research question, students should begin by deciding what type of
question they're trying to answer.
In the case of a reading assignment, students should decide early on how the passage is
organized.
In both cases, students can look for some of the signal words listed below to help them to
make their decisions.
Here is a list of Signal Words
Chronological Sequence
Generalization/Principle
Comparison/Contrast
Process/Cause and Effect
Chronological Sequence
after
afterward
as soon as before
during
finally
first
following
immediately initially
later
meanwhile
next
not long after now
on (date)
preceding second
soon
then
third
today
until
when
Description
Comparison/Contrast
although
as well as
as opposed to both
but
compared with different from either...or
even though
however
instead of
in common
on the other hand otherwise
similar to
similarly
still
yet
Description
above
across along
appears to be
as in
behind below
beside
between down in back of in front of
looks like near on top of onto
outside over such as to the right/left
under
Generalization/Principle
additionally always
because of clearly
conclusively first
for instance for example
furthermore generally
however
if...then
in fact
it could be argued that moreover most convincing
never
not only...but also
often
second
therefore
third
truly
typically
Process/Cause
accordingly as a result of because
begins with
consequently effects of
finally
first
for this reason how to
how
if...then
in order to
is caused by leads/led to may be due to
next
so that
steps involved therefore
thus
when...then
Sites That Matter
Check out the sites below to learn more about classroom strategies for helping students use text
structure for comprehension and writing.
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General Information on Text Structure
Lesson Plans on Text Structure
Text Structure Teacher Tools
General Information on Text Structure
Using Text Structure
The National Education Association presents a brief introduction to the concept of text structure with
suggestions of strategies for teaching about it.
www.nea.org/reading/usingtextstructure.html
Using Expository Text Patterns to Enhance Comprehension
This is a comprehensive introduction to online text structure web sites that review recent research and
show how teachers are using direct instruction in expository text patterns for the kind of reading
students encounter in all subject areas.
www.suite101.com/article.cfm/reading/68477
Text Structure
This web site offers a concise introduction to different types of text structures and signal words. It also
suggests questions for each structure and includes diagrams and sample teacher materials.
www.somers.k12.ny.us/intranet/reading/questions.html
Reading Instructional Handbook
This handbook provides an introduction to the research on text structure. It lists the signal words for
each structure and graphically illustrates each structure.
smasd.k12.pa.us/pssa/html/Reading/pdf/rihand15.pdf
Reader and Text
This site offers an introduction to text structure with a mini-tutorial for students. It includes sample
texts and different strategies for organizing them, such as signal words and mapping.
www.info.kochi-tech.ac.jp/lawrie/semanticmapindex.htm
THE PRACTICE: Understanding Text Structures
The Knowledge Loom offers an introductory page on text structures that suggests strategies, resources,
and questions to think about. knowledgeloom.org/practice_basedoc.jsp?t=1&bpid=1208&aspect
=1&location=2&parentid=1197&bpinterid=1197&spotlightid=1174#suggested
Lesson Plans on Text Structure
Reading Trail
Focusing on text structure, this site provides a series of lessons with sample readings about climbing
Mt. Everest.
www.everestquest.com/reading.htm
Strengthening Reading and Writing Skills Using the Internet
Scholastic offers a series of lessons focusing on different text organizing strategies, e.g., sequencing,
compare-contrast.
teacher.scholastic.com/professional/teachtech/internetreadwrite.htm
Text Structure Teacher Tools
Understanding Text Implementation Guide
This site provides an introductory lesson to the concept of text structure and includes sample social
studies texts and questions.
go.hrw.com/secure/ss/general/strategies/STRAT02U.PDF
The Textmapping Project
This site describes the benefits of textmapping, which is an alternative type of graphic organizer that
involves the text being reproduced in scroll fashion and a spatially descriptive form of marking text.
www.textmapping.org/index.html
Literacy Matters—Graphic Organizer Page
Go to the Literacy Matters Graphic Organizer page to check out our pre-selected list of graphic organizers.
www.literacymatters.org/content/study/organizers.htm
Text Structure
Knowing how a piece of text is organized helps the reader to make better sense of the
information. Each organizational structure suggests questions which readers should consider as
they are reading and be able to answer once they've finished reading the passage.
Looking for signal words can help students to determine a text's organizational structure.
Each organizational structure suggests particular questions:
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Chronological Sequence
Sequencing
Questions to Consider:
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What happened?
What is the sequence of events?
What are the substages?
Graphic Organizers
Timeline
Flow Chart
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Comparison/Contrast
Compare and Contrast
Questions to Consider:
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Modified Venn
What are the similar and different
qualities of these things?
What qualities of each thing correspond
to one another? In what way?
ClarisWorks file
.pdf file
Ladder Map
ClarisWorks file
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Description
Describing Qualities
Questions to Consider:
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Bubble Map
What are you describing?
What are its qualities?
ClarisWorks file
.pd
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Point of View
Point of View
Questions to Consider:
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What are the various perspectives?
How do they impact behavior?
What contributed to their development?
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Problem/Solution
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Graphic Organizer
Cause and Effect
Questions to Consider
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What are the causes and effects of this event?
What might happen next?
Graphic Organizers
Multiple Causes Map
ClarisWorks file
.pdf file
Multiple Effects Map
ClarisWorks file
.pdf
Somers CSD example
Problem Solving
Questions to Consider:
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Graphic Organizer
What is the problem?
What are the possible solutions?
Which solution is best?
How will you implement this solution?
ClarisWorks file
.pdf file
Somers CSD example
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Process/Cause and Effect
Using a Think Aloud in the Classroom
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As you read aloud, verbalize your thoughts and questions. It is helpful if you adjust the
tone of your voice so that students can distinguish when you are reading from when you
are thinking aloud more easily.
Have students work with partners to practice "think-alouds" using short passages of text.
Structured Note-taking
This strategy helps students take notes more effectively. It offers students a visual framework
that helps them to focus on what's most important.
Initially, the teacher provides students with a graphic organizer that parallels the structure of the
text to be read. The goal is for students to learn to do this on their own.
Classroom Ideas for Using Structured Note-taking
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Model how you would use a graphic organizer for note-taking on a short passage.
Have students practice on their own using an assigned passage and graphic
organizer.(You may want to fill in parts of the organizer such as headings to provide more
guidance in the beginning.) Students can share their work with a partner, explaining why
they included or excluded certain information and justifying its location on the organizer.
Continue providing opportunities for students to practice, offering less assistance over
time. Gradually show students how to preview text to help them to recognize a text's
organizational structure and then to select an appropriate graphic organizer for notetaking.
Graphic Organizers that Support Specific Thinking Skills
Thinking Skills
Describing Qualities
Questions
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Graphic Organizers/
Thinking Maps
What are you describing?
What are its qualities?
Bubble Map
ClarisWorks file
.pdf file
Classifying/Categorizing
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What sort of thing is this?
What are the sub-categories?
What other things can go into
these sub-categories?
Tree Map
ClarisWorks file
.pdf file
Chart
MS Word file
.pdf file
Somers CSD example
Compare and Contrast
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What are the similar and different
qualities of these things?
What qualities of each thing
correspond to one another? In
Modified Venn
what way?
ClarisWorks file
.pdf file
Ladder Map
ClarisWorks file
.pdf file
Somers CSD examples
NYS Ed examples
Sequencing
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What happened?
What is the sequence of events?
What are the substages?
Timeline
ClarisWorks file
.pdf file
Flow Chart
ClarisWorks file
.pdf file
Somers CSD example
Part to Whole
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What is the whole object or
concept?
What are the major parts of it?
What are the subparts of each
major part (if any)?
Bracket Map
ClarisWorks file
.pdf file
Puzzle Map
ClarisWorks file
.pdf file
Cause and Effect
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What are the causes and effects of Multiple Causes Map
this event?
What might happen next?
ClarisWorks file
.pdf file
Multiple Effects Map
ClarisWorks file
.pdf file
Somers CSD example
Point of View
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What are the various
perspectives?
How do they impact behavior?
What contributed to their
development?
Point of View Map
ClarisWorks file
.pdf file
Problem Solving
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What is the problem?
What are the possible solutions?
Which solution is best?
How will you implement this
Problem Solving Map
solution?
ClarisWorks file
Somers CSD example
Post Reading Exercises
RAFT - Role/Audience/Format/Topic
The RAFT strategy (Santa, 1988) offers students a creative outlet for demonstrating
understanding. Students communicate information by taking an unusual point of view and
writing for a specific audience. RAFT stands for:
Question-Answer Relationships (QAR) Strategy
QAR (Raphael, 1982; 1986) is a strategy that equips students to tackle questions more
effectively by teaching them to recognize different types of questions.
Two types of questions, for example, are text-based:
.pdf file
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Right There questions are formulated with words taken exactly from the text. Answers
can be found in the same sentence.
Think and Search questions ask students to think about the information they read and to
search through the entire passage to find information that applies.
Two other types of questions are knowledge-based because they require students to use prior
knowledge:
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Author and You questions require students to have read the text to understand the
questions; however, the answers are not found in the text.
On My Own questions can be answered by students based on their background
knowledge; they do not require reading the text.
PLAN - Predict/Locate/Add/Note
This study -reading strategy consists of 4 steps that students use before, during, and after
reading. It was first developed for college students, but has been modified to be used with
younger students as well. Middle school students find this strategy helpful as they transition
from learning to read to reading for information.
Here are the steps: