University of Ottawa
Anton Minkov
HIST7330 Defining Identities: Conversion, Nationalism and Foreign Intervention in the Ottoman EmpireClass 6
THE ERA OF TRANSFORMATION: OTTOMAN REFORMS IN THE 19TH
CENTURY
Outline
•Reasserting the power of central government
•The Tanzimat reforms
•The Land Code of 1858
•The Young Ottomans
•The constitution of 1876
•Abdulhamid, Islamism and totalitarianism in the Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman state at the turn of 18th c.
•Gradual transfer of power from the central government to provincial elites – ayans
(escalating in last quarter)
–Spheres of power mutually complementary
–Genesis of Ottoman middle class – mostly non-Muslims
•Gradual loss of international prestige (escalating in last quarter)
–However, territorial losses still not significant
•Fiscal reorganization, mechanisms established to increase state revenues even from
diminished resources
–Life long lease of taxfarms
–Big farms (Chiftliks) – private ventures…… on state land
–Expropriation of waqfs (trusts)
–Idea of reforms western type catching up
19th century consolidation of power
•1813, fiscal monopoly of Karaosmanoglu family in western Anatolia broken
•1815, most prominent ayans physically eliminated
•1828, the army mobilized for the war with Russia used against the remaining ayans
•1831, the timar system abolished
–2,500 sipahi given pensions and their lands leased out as tax-farms
–Reform implemented on stages until 1844
•The claims of the great landlords wrecked
•Government preserves de jure control of the land
•However, attempts to replace tax-farming by direct collection of salaried employees
unsuccessful
th
–even in the early 20 century 95% of all revenues still collected through tax-farming
The nature of Ottoman reforms
•Western Europe’ unique secular and scientific development proved almost invincible
•Russia made conscious effort to adapt those models
–Eventually ensured its position as “European” Great Power
University of Ottawa
Anton Minkov
HIST7330 Defining Identities: Conversion, Nationalism and Foreign Intervention in the Ottoman EmpireClass 6
•Only Ottoman society managed to preserve independent cultural existence despite
immense imperialist and nationalist pressures
•It did so by making adaptations – styled as “reforms”
–Sought to both adapt and retain Islamic cultural identity
•Adaptations – halfhearted and partially effective
•However, the “reforms” succeeded in preserving the empire into the early 20th century
Early adaptive efforts
•Ahmed III – European military advisors – deposed
•Selim III – the “New order” troops
–1799, successfully repelled Napoleon’s invasion of Palestine
–1807, deposed
•Mahmud II
–modernized the artillery corps instead of creating a new troops
–1826, annihilated the Janissaries, established control over the military, deprived
conservatives of armed support
–Thereafter Ottoman military played a leading role in all reforms
–New secondary schools for military officers and government officials – few, no threat to
traditional education
–No changes however in economic life, non-military technologies and politics
•Opposition/challenges
–Military forces without any structure
–Military defeats- Russia (1829-30), Greek uprising, Mehmed Ali
–Prejudice, reluctance to accept new ways among the military
–Bosnia – a hotbed of conservatism – suppression of ayans ended in the 1850s
•Successes
–Western-style pyramidal command structure and unit organization, Standing and reserve
forces
–Conscription enacted (but volunteers accepted)
–Recruitment of military advisors (mostly Russian)
–Administrative structure of government – departments, officials paid salaries, cabinet
–Language training in French mostly), German, English
–N.B., not all reforms functioned effectively or fully implemented
The Tanzimat Period
•Carried out by the generation of Mahmud’s reforms
•The Men of the Tanzimat (men who give order to things)– Mustafa Reshid Pasha
•The challenges
–The Ottoman state manipulated by the Great Powers
–Western-inspired nationalism taking away the Balkan territories
•The goal – to adapt European models while preserving the essence of traditional Islamic
society
•1839, The Hatti Humayun (imperial edict) of Gulhane
–Efficiency to central government, stability to the provinces
–All subjects have the rights to life, honor and wealth
–New penal code, new council to frame those rights
University of Ottawa
Anton Minkov
HIST7330 Defining Identities: Conversion, Nationalism and Foreign Intervention in the Ottoman EmpireClass 6
–Equitable conscription (restricted to Muslim subjects)
•Role of traditional Islamic state – defense, protecting religious beliefs, civil order
•The 1939 edict– education free of religious leadership, economy stimulation, state
infrastructure
•Difficult to implement
–fear of conservative backlash kept pace of reforms slow
•Successes
–in government administration - specialized training of officials, Council of ministers,
responsible directly to the sultan
–Infrastructure - railroads, telegraph lines, postal system – more efficient central
administration, new markets for the new middle class
–Education - Technical schools expanded, new nongovernmental schools, teacher
training schools, middle schools for religiously trained students in technical studies
•Small educated elite - 3% attended by the end of 1860s
Failures of the Hatti Humayun
•Despite increased effectiveness, government never ensured that population fully paid its
taxes
•Not enough government officials to replace tax farmers
•“Capitulation” system eliminated Ottoman foreign trade
•Equal rights in taxation, justice, education, public office holding proclaimed but ignored
or poorly implemented
–Only Muslims eligible for military service – stepping stone for advancement
–Non-Muslims left at penal and judicial mercy of local authority
–and effectively bared them from entering government service
Hatti Humayun of 1856
•Beginning of direct impact
•1856, Paris Peace conference - new Hatti Numayun
–Reforms slow – danger of conservative reaction
–Political vehicle for support of Ottoman reforms
–Formal admission to European Great Powers (access to loans)
•1858, Land code, new Penal code based on French law
–Aimed at lessen inequities experienced by non-Muslims
–Periodic inspections
•Millet reorganization
–1857, Abdulmecid ordered general council of the Orthodox church – took place in
1860-62
–Three new millets created – Catholic, Protestant, and Armenian Catholic
The Land Law of 1858
•Government’s reassertion of its fiscal domination or a catalyst in transforming state land
into private property?
•Purpose- political
–All individuals possess title deed to have legal use of the land
–Complete survey of land and registration
–Government officials must record all land transfers – local notables eliminated
University of Ottawa
Anton Minkov
HIST7330 Defining Identities: Conversion, Nationalism and Foreign Intervention in the Ottoman EmpireClass 6
–Few provisions favor large landholders
•Those
who lease land from title holder does not have any rights
individual can acquire a title to a whole village
–However, issue not of large vs. stall landholder but to maintain stability of tenure
•Aggregation permitted to maintain production and tax levels
•Government preferred small to the potentially dangerous large holders
•Purpose- economic
–Title deed given even to people illegally tilling state land
–If not tilled for 3 years, land given to someone else
–Maintenance and promotion of agricultural development
–List of heirs expanded significantly, inheritance provisions resemble those of private
property
–Actually, nothing more than promotion of a greater stability of tenure
•Purpose – fiscal
–State granted title deeds neither to register actual cultivators, nor to promote
agricultural development
–Rather, to identify taxpayers
–However, large landholders did not utilize direct exploitation
–Sharecroppers, who were not title-holders paid the taxes
•An
Provincial reforms
•1864, the Vilayet law – greater administrative decentralization and local participation
•Midhad Pasha - governor of the Danube province
•Transformed the province into a model province
–Building bridges, roads, schools
–Agrarian bank
–Banditry suppressed
–Provincial laws published in both Bulgarian and Turkish
–The first official Bulgarian-language printing press
•Topal Osman Pasha – governor in Bosnia
–Muslim and Christian schools,
–Library, first public hospital, new courts, printing press
–Joint Muslim-Christian advisory board
•The weak link of provincial reforms–governor’s crucial role
The end of Tanzimat era
•1871, Ali Pasha – last strong proponent of reforms dies
•Sultan Abdulaziz reasserts supreme authority over the remaining Tanzimat group
–Reforms had not decentralized ottoman government
–No strong reform party leadership
–Central power rested completely with the sultan
•Contracting huge loans from European banks for reforms as well as lavish personal
expenses
•Economic reforms never produced the expected revenue to cover the debts
•Abdulaziz continually defaulted on payments
•With a bankruptcy coming no incentive to invest resources in additional reform measure
University of Ottawa
Anton Minkov
HIST7330 Defining Identities: Conversion, Nationalism and Foreign Intervention in the Ottoman EmpireClass 6
The Young Ottomans
•Not a coherent organization – shared similar values
–Dislike of the bureaucratic reformism of the Tanzimat
–More democratic form of government
–Incorporation of European political organization and retention of Islamic foundations of
society
•Islamic tradition of consultation
•The concept of Ottomanism – Namik Kemal
–All Ottomans share loyalties to the territorial entity – fatherland
•Ottoman nationalism?
–European nationalism – popular phenomenon
–Ottomanism – to be imposed by the top
•Modernization of language – Shinasi
•The periodical press as new medium of communication
The Ottoman Constitution
•The Young Ottomans – philosophers not politicians
•Ideas carried out by top bureaucrats – Midhad Pasha
•The crisis of 1875-78
–financial crisis – bankruptcy of the Central Bank
–Political crisis – the Istanbul conference
–Abdulaziz deposed, Murad V, Abdulhamid
•Commission to work on drafting constitution – Oct. 1876
–Under the leadership of Midhad
–28 members – 16 bureaucrats, 10 ulema, 2 military
–Final draft – Dec. 1, held off until Dec. 19
–Article 113 – sultan’s right to exile anyone he considers of danger to the state
–Proclaimed on Dec. 23, 1876
•The Sultanate
–No diminution of the sovereign rights of the sultan
–Included the supreme caliphate of Islam
–No one responsible for his acts
–Can appoint and dismiss ministers, parliament, issue laws, temporary suspend the
guarantees of the constitution
•The Parliament –avenue of popular input into laws
–Chamber of deputies – 120, elected. Immunity
–Chamber of notables – 40, appointed
–Council of State – supreme court, to draft the laws
•Elections in Nov. 1876
–Christians overrepresentation – 1 for 107,000 males, Muslims – 1 for 133,000, Jews - 1
for 19,000
•Parliament opened March 1878
–44 Christians, 71 Muslims, 4 Jews; 26 upper chamber
•Individual rights
–Affirmed equality of all Ottoman subjects, however Islam remained official religion
–No millets mentioned
University of Ottawa
Anton Minkov
HIST7330 Defining Identities: Conversion, Nationalism and Foreign Intervention in the Ottoman EmpireClass 6
•Judicial system
–Secular court system incorporated in the constitution
–Judges appointed for life
–Religious court to still serve religious communities
•The Constitution – proclamation of Ottomanism and Ottoman patriotism
•Contained in a form understandable to the West the provisions for human rights and
basic institutions developed during the previous half-century Tanzimat
Faith of Ottoman Parliament
•January 1877 – failure of the Istanbul conference
–Midhad Pasha dismissed and exiled by Abdulhamid
•Russian-Turkish war of 1877-78
–Parliament approved expenditure of war, bestows a title of Gazi to the Sultan
–Not involved in actual conduct of war
•Ottoman defeat in the war
–Deputies criticize government for conduct of war, call for return of Midhad Pasha
–Abdulhamid consults with parliament for inviting the British fleet – insulted by a
member of the parliament (Feb. 1878)
•Abdulhamid dismissed the Parliament
–Used power given to him by the Constitution
Abdulhamid (1876-1909)
•Abdulhamid disappointed by Western style reforms
•Stresses Islamic heritage – status of caliph
•Pan-Islamism – rejection of Ottomanism
–Abdulhamid – protector of Muslims around the world
–Single Islamic umma under the leadership of one caliph
–Instrument in diplomatic negotiations
–Arab notable families and ulema enjoyed increased prestige
–Hidjaz railway (Damascus to Mecca) – finance from private donations of Muslims
around the world
•Progress in education and transportation
–Professional schools, teacher training schools expanded
–The Civil Service School and University of Istanbul (1900)
–1883, Istanbul – Vienna railway (Orient Express)
–Berlin –Anatolia - Baghdad railway, German investment
Totalitarianism
•Telegraph network
–Tightened central government’s control over provinces
•Increasing ties with Germany to reorganize the army
•Total control over information available to his subjects
–Censorship of press, school curricula
–Public discussion of politics forbidden
–Network of spies and informants – wave of exiles of Ottoman officials and intellectuals
•Suppression of national movements
University of Ottawa
Anton Minkov
HIST7330 Defining Identities: Conversion, Nationalism and Foreign Intervention in the Ottoman EmpireClass 6
–Armenian massacres of 1890s - ~ 300,000
–Crete uprising and Ottoman – Greek war, Abdulhamid forced to accept autonomy of
Crete by European powers
•Increasingly isolated at the beginning of 20th c.
–Pan-Islamism more popular abroad than in the country
Summary
•Ottoman reforms aim at adaptation and preserving traditional Islamic values rather than
radical change
•Non-Muslims effectively barred from participation in the government
•Tanzimat era contributed to formation of educated elite and strengthening of government
apparatus
•Land Reforms aimed at consolidating state’s power
–Modernization of the land regime only superficial – state ownership of land reasserted
–In reality, recognition of changes to the classical land regime during the seventeenth and
eighteenth century
–Peasants satisfied with ownership rights within the concept of state ownership
•Eliminating provincial powers and more revenue