NAT IONAL QUALIFICAT IONS CURRICULUM SUPPORT
Geography
Landscapes
Resource Pack
[INTERMEDIATE 1,
INTERMEDIATE 2]
Ian Rae

First published 2000
Electronic version 2001
© Scottish Consultative Council on the Curriculum 2000
This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part for educational purposes by
educational establishments in Scotland provided that no profit accrues at any stage.
Acknowledgements
Learning and Teaching Scotland gratefully acknowledge this contributio n to the Higher Still
support programme for Geography. Thanks are due in particular to Ian Rae and Sandy
Robertson, authors of the original Short Course Geology and Scenery (SCCC, 1992) upon
which parts of this publication are based, and Andrew McLeish, a uthor of the original Short
Course Earth Materials: Rocks and Minerals, upon which other parts are based.
Drawings are by Bob McAllister and Andrew McLeish. The photographs on pages 34, 41,
81, 94 and 112 are from the British Geological Survey, © NERC. All rights reserved. The
photograph on page 141 is © Aerographica/Patricia and Angus Macdonald.
ISBN 1 85955 839 9
Learning and Teaching Scotland
Gardyne Road
Dundee
DD5 1NY
w w w . L T S c ot l a n d. c o m
CONTENTS
Student Guide
1
Teacher Guide
9
Section 1:
Section 2:
Section 3:
Section 4:
Section 5:
Section 6:
Weathering and Erosion
Information Book
Activity Sheets
17
28
Rocks
Information Book
Activity Sheets
48
55
Glaciated Uplands
Information Book
Activity Sheets
67
75
Upland Limestone Landscapes
Information Book
Activity Sheets
86
91
Coastal Landscapes
Information Book
Activity Sheets
101
108
Volcanic Landscapes
Information Book
Activity Sheets
121
132
Student Answ er Sheets
143
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
iii
iv
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
S TU D EN T G U ID E
STUDENT GUIDE
Landscapes
How ‘Landscapes’ fits in with Intermediate 1/2 Geography.
The six sections of ‘Landscapes’ fit into Unit 1 People and the Environment:
Scotland/British Isles.
Sections 1, 2, 3 and 4, combined with Case Studies provided by you r teacher
make up ‘Physical Landscapes and Land Use’.
Sections 1, 3, 5 and 6, combined with Case Studies provided by your teacher
make up ‘Landscapes and Tourism’.
Materials
You will have to work through and complete a set of Student Activity Sheets.
Within these sheets there are some more difficult Extension activities which
you should do only if you have time. You will also use an Information Book,
which contains text, maps and diagrams to help you to complete the
activities. There are some Workcards to help you with experiments. Finally,
your room or lab will have a set of answers to the questions in the Student
Activity Sheets. The Information Book, Workcards and Answer Sheets
should not be marked or damaged.
Assessment
You will be assessed by your teacher at various times during the course and
by an external examination at the end of the course. If you are successful you
will be given an award at either Intermediate 1 or Intermediate 2 level by the
Scottish Qualifications Authority.
The Outcomes for the two levels are listed at the front of each set of Activity
Sheets.
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
1
S TU D EN T G U ID E
Throughout the Student Activity Sheets you will find instruction symbols
which have the meanings shown in the table:
2
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
S TU D EN T G U ID E
Section 1: Weathering and Erosion
Introduction
Freeze-thaw action – an example of physical weathering
The effect of rainwater on limestone – an example of chemical weathering
Erosion, Transport and Deposition
The Work of Rivers
The Work of the Sea
The Work of Ice
The Work of the Wind
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
3
S TU D EN T G U ID E
Section 2: Rocks
Introduction
Igneous Rocks
Sedimentary Rocks
Metamorphic Rocks
Rocks and Relief
4
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
S TU D EN T G U ID E
Section 3: Glaciated Uplands
Introduction
Corrie and Tarn
Arête
Pyramidal Peak
U-shaped Valley
Truncated Spur
Hanging Valley
Ribbon Lake
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
5
S TU D EN T G U ID E
Section 4: Upland Limestone Landscapes
Introduction
Limestone Pavement, Clints and Grikes
Swallow Holes and Intermittent Drainage
Caverns
Gorges
Stalactites and Stalagmites
6
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
S TU D EN T G U ID E
Section 5: Coastal Landscapes
Introduction
Headlands and Bays
Cliffs
Caves, Arches and Stacks
Spit, Bar and Tombolo
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
7
S TU D EN T G U ID E
Section 6: Volcanic Landscapes
Formation of Volcanoes
Types of Volcano
Volcanic Activity in the British Isles
Lava Plateau
Dykes and Sills
Volcanic Plug
Crag and Tail
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GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
TEACHER GUIDE
Introduction
Landscapes comprises six sections which cover the physical requirements of
the Intermediate 1/2 Geography Course, Unit 1 People and the Environment:
Scotland/British Isles.
Section
Section
Section
Section
Section
Section
One:
Two:
Three:
Four:
Five:
Six:
Weathering and Erosion
Rocks
Glaciated Uplands
Upland Limestone Landscapes
Coastal Landscapes
Volcanic Landscapes
Sections 1, 2, 3 and 4, combined with the relevant Case Studies make up
‘Physical Landscapes and Land Use’.
Sections 1, 3, 5 and 6, combined with the other Case Studies make up
‘Landscapes and Tourism’.
Student Materials
The following exemplar materials have been provided:
Student Guide
This tells the student how to use the course materials. Information on
assessment is given and flowcharts are provided so that students can keep a
record of work done.
Student Activity Sheets
These are non-consumable student worksheets consisting of core and
extension exercises. Completing the core exercises alone should allow
students to achieve the Outcomes at both Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2
levels. The extensions are non-essential exercises designed to improve the
knowledge, understanding and skills of more able students.
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
9
T EA CH ER GU I D E
Student Information Book
This is a non-consumable booklet which provides the student with
background information. Many of the core exercises in the Student Activity
Sheets are based on readings from the Information Book.
Workcards
These are non-consumable cards which give instructions on how to carry out
an experiment or some other activity.
Student Answer Sheets
These provide answers to questions in the Student Activity Sheets. The
Answer Sheets allow students to check on their progress. A few of the
questions can be checked only by the teacher.
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GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
T EA CH ER GU I D E
Learning and Teaching Approaches
Role of the Teacher
While the exemplar materials are strongly student -centred, there are many
places where teacher-led discussions would be invaluable. There are also
places where teacher demonstrations are required.
Use of Additional Resources
The use of additional materials (for example, filmstrips, videos,
transparencies, computer software, leaflets, maps, etc.) will enhance the
provided materials, especially when backed up by worksheets written by the
teacher.
The filmstrips Coasts and Man and River Landscapes issued by the
Geography Standard Grade CSG and the two Geology Short Course filmstrips
issued by the Geology CSG contain various transparencies of use with these
materials.
Exercises based on fieldwork would be of special value and teachers should
take every opportunity to allow students to develop their skills in the field.
Differentiation
The Outcomes for Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2 are laid out at the star t
of the Activity Sheets in each Section.
It is recommended that teachers gauge the general ability of their class and
amend the materials accordingly. For example, a class of entirely
Intermediate 1 students could have all the materials relating to the
Intermediate 2 Outcomes removed, although they could provide useful
extension work.
Geographical Methods and Techniques
An indication of the GMTs covered in each Section is given at the start of
each set of Activity Sheets.
Use of Answer Sheets
The Student Answer Sheets have been divided into small sections each of
which corresponds to a Checkpoint in the Student Activity Sheets.
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
11
T EA CH ER GU I D E
Teachers should ensure that students do not complete the Activity Sheets
simply by copying from the Answer Sheets. For example, teachers should
ensure that the sheets to be checked have been completed. The teacher may
also wish to issue the answers a Checkpoint at a time. The Answer Sheets do
not provide complete coverage of the Activity Sheets so teacher checks have
to be made where indicated.
Experiments and Videos
To preclude difficulties which may arise during course work it is
recommended that teachers try out experiments in advance. Also, strict
safety precautions should be enforced and due regard given to COSHH
regulations.
Teachers are encouraged to do the experiments since they enhance the course
and provide variety. However, if time or other circumstances pose
insuperable difficulties most of the experiments (or ones very similar) are
included on two videos produced by the Auchterderran Staff Development
and Resources Centre, Fife for the Geology Short Courses, and reissued to
geography departments of schools and colleges by Learning and Teaching
Scotland in 2001:
Video 1 – Geology: The Study of the Earth (GSE)
Video 2 – covering the other five Short Courses
Geology and Scenery (GS)
Geology, People and the Environment (GPE)
Earth Materials: Rocks and Minerals (EMRM)
History of the Earth (HE)
Earth Physics and Earth Movements (EMRM)
The relevant video and Short Course is indicated in the next section of this
guide, Resource Use in Activity Sheets and Workcards.
Ordnance Survey Maps
In the Activity Sheets care has been taken to select maps that schools are
already likely to have in stock. Details are given i n the next section of this
guide, Resource Use in Activity Sheets and Workcards.
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T EA CH ER GU I D E
Resource Use in Activity Sheets and Workcards
Questions/Workcards
Materials
Section One: Weathering and Erosion
3
Sandstone, shale (or Video 1 GSE with sandstone,
mudstone and basalt)
9
Limestone or chalk, 2 test tubes (or Video 1 GSE)
14
Workcard 1
Plastic guttering, 2 wooden blocks of different
thicknesses, red dye, protractor, water, stopwatch (or
Video 2 GS)
15, 16, 17
Workcard 2
As Workcard 1 plus sand and gravel (or Video 2 GS)
18, 19
Workcard 3
As Workcard 2 (or Video 2 GS)
25-29
Workcard 4
Sand tray (or A4 cardboard box lined with
polythene), fine sand, water bottle with pourer, plastic
carton, bucket and milk top
53
Piece of hardboard painted with emulsion paint, ice cube
with sand grains frozen into one side (or Video 2 GS)
62-65
Workcard 5
Hairdryer, sand and fine gravel, water, sheet of
paper or tray 50cm long (or Video 2 GS)
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
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T EA CH ER GU I D E
Section Two: Rocks
1, 2
1 sedimentary rock, 1 igneous rock, magnifying glass,
cloth, penknife, hammer, safety goggles
7
Workcard 1
Microscope, safety goggles, urea, 4 glass slides,
cloth, hot plate (or Video 2 EMRM or a similar
experiment on Video 1 GSE using salt solution and
metal)
23
Screwtop jar, soil, salt (or Video 2 EMRM)
26
Damp clay, dried clay, fired clay
27, 28
Workcard 2
Plasticine, safety goggles, rice, squeezing can be
either manual or mechanical (or Video 2 EMRM)
38
Relief map of British Isles
Section Three: Glaciated Uplands
1
Atlas
28
OS Project Map 1:50,000 Aviemore
30
OS Project Map 1:50,000 Fort William
31
OS Project Map 1:50,000 Torridon
Section Four: Upland Limestone Landscapes
7
Atlas
32
OS Map Extract 1:25,000 Malham (NB This map is on
page 167 of Core Themes in Geography – Physical,
Broadley and Cunningham)
33
OS Map Extract No 1056/OLM2 1:25,000 Ingleton
(Higher Grade Paper 1 1997)
Extension
OS Project Map 1:50,000 Wensleydale
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GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
T EA CH ER GU I D E
Section Five: Coastal Landscapes
2
Atlas
4-6
Workcard 1
Sand tray, sand, clay, a wave maker made of hard board or strong cardboard (or Video 2 GS)
15
OS Map Extract No 830/0148-9 1:25,000 Banff/Macduff
(Standard Grade General Level 1991)
16 (and E1)
OS Map Extract No 645/66 1:50,000 Haddington
(Ordinary Grade Paper 1 1986)
29
OS Map Extract No 866/134 1:50,000 Great Yarmouth
(Standard Grade Credit Level 1992)
33
OS Map Extract No 972/195 1:50,000 Bournemouth
(Revised Higher Grade Paper 1 1995)
36
Atlas
Section Six: Volcanic Landscapes
1
Bottle of soda water or lemonade
22
Glass slide, Bunsen burner, beaker, safety goggles. The
glass is heated then plunged into cold water. The glass is
fractured by forces generated by rapid contraction (or
Video 2 EMRM)
25
Atlas
39
Atlas
46
OS Project Map 1:50,000 Edinburgh
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
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T EA CH ER GU I D E
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GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
T EA CH ER GU I D E
SECTION ONE
Information Book
(a)
Introduction
A landscape is the shape of the land surface. For example, in a coastal landscape
you may see cliffs and beaches. Landscapes are formed and changed by processes
such as weathering, erosion, transport and deposition.
• Weathering is the process by which rocks are broken up in the place where they
are sitting.
• Erosion is the process by which the land is worn away by moving wind, water
and ice.
• Transport is the process by which eroded material is moved across the landscape
by water, wind and ice.
• Deposition is the process by which materials such as pebbles, sand and mud are
laid down by wind, water and ice.
Weathering takes place in two main ways:
1.
2.
In physical weathering the rock is broken without being chemically changed .
In chemical weathering the rock is changed into new chemicals.
(b)
Freeze-thaw action – an example of physical weathering
Rocks often have cracks or joints in them. In wet weather water seeps into these
cracks. If it freezes, the water turns to ic e and expands. This widens the crack –
just like the way water pipes burst in the winter.
Fig 1.1
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
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T EA CH ER GU I D E
Later the ice melts. (This is when water leaks out of your burst pipes.) Then the
crack fills with water again, the water freezes and the crack is made even wider.
Eventually the rock is broken up into sharp -edged (angular) fragments.
Blocks of rock, broken off by this freeze-thaw process, fall off a cliff and pile up at
the bottom to form a slope of scree (Fig 1.2). Hillwalkers find scree very diffic ult
to climb because it constantly slips downhill.
Fig 1.2
(c)
The effect of rainwater on limestone – an example of chemical weathering
The structure of limestone rock is a series of layers (beds) laid one on top of the
other. Within each bed there are vertical cracks called joints (Fig 1.3).
Fig 1.3
joint
beds of
limestone
bedding plane
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GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
T EA CH ER GU I D E
Limestone is composed of the mineral calcium carbonate, which reacts with and is
dissolved by acid. Rainwater is a weak acid because it dissolves carbon dioxide
from the air. Therefore, over a long period of time, limestone is dissolved by rain.
This action occurs mostly along the joints and bedding planes (Fig 1.4), because
rainwater is channelled into these. Slowly the joints become widened. It is these
widened joints that people wriggle down and along when they are taking part in the
sport of potholing.
Fig 1.4
As well as potholes chemical weathering produces a variety of other landscape
features which are unique to limestone areas. These are studied in Section Four.
(d)
Erosion, Transport and Deposition
Rivers, the sea, wind and ice all erode the landscape. These are the agents of
erosion. However, the material that is worn away does not disappear. It is carried
(transported) by the agent of erosion and dropped ( deposited) somewhere else.
In fact, human activities can have similar effects, for example, if stone is quarried
and moved to build a harbour (Fig 1.5).
Fig 1.5
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
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T EA CH ER GU I D E
Thus, if erosion occurs in one place, deposition must occur somewhere else. Both
these processes – erosion and deposition – are responsible for features of our
landscape.
(e)
The Work of Rivers
(i)
A river has energy as it flows to the sea. This enables the river to
transport material.
Fig 1.6
If the river is flowing down a steep slope or is ‘in spa te’ (flowing very
fast during very wet weather), it can carry a lot of material. Think how
muddy your local river or stream becomes in wet weather. The material
carried by a river is called alluvium.
(ii)
The boulders and pebbles that are rolled along the bed wear away the
rock below. If they settle in a hollow they are swirled around by the
current. Potholes are formed in the bed of the river and so the river cuts
down into the land to form a valley (Fig 1.7).
Fig 1.7
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GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
T EA CH ER GU I D E
The valley may be narrow and steep-sided – a gorge, or if the sides have
been weathered and eroded the valley will have a V -shape (Fig 1.8).
Fig 1.8
(iii) When the slope of the river bed becomes gentle, the river loses the
energy to transport its load and deposits alluvium. The course of the
river becomes less straight and may form big loops, called meanders.
As the river flows round the meander the main current swings to the
outside, so that the bank and bed are eroded. However, on the inside the
current is much slower, so alluvium is deposited (Fig 1.9).
Fig 1.9: Meander
eros i o n
d ir ec t io n
of c ur r e nt
de p os it i on
to p v i e w of
m eand er s
(iv) A river deposits most alluvium when it completely loses its energy. This
happens when it meets a lake or the sea – at the mouth of the river. If
currents in the sea do not carry the alluvium away it piles up at the
mouth of the river. Eventually new land is formed – called a river delta
(Fig 1.10).
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
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T EA CH ER GU I D E
Fig 1.10: Formation of a delta
(f)
The Work of the Sea
Waves break constantly against the coastline. In stormy weather they have
enormous power. Sea cliffs are eroded in two main ways (Fig 1.11):
1.
As a wave breaks air is compressed into cracks in the rock. The rock is
loosened so that fragments are washed off.
2.
Pebbles are repeatedly picked up from the sea bed and hurled again st the cliff,
wearing it away.
22
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
T EA CH ER GU I D E
Fig 1.11
The fragments broken from the cliffs are constantly rolled back and forth and
become broken down into smaller and smaller rounded fragments, eventually
becoming sand. This is washed away by waves and currents to be deposited as a
beach farther along the coast.
Sand on beaches may also form from broken shells (for example, the white sand
beaches of the Outer Hebrides) or from material washed into the sea by rivers.
The processes of erosion and deposition produ ce stunning coastal landscapes with a
variety of features. These are examined in Section Five.
(g)
The Work of Ice
In Scotland the winter snow melts in the summer. Only in some shady corners high
on Ben Nevis and in the Cairngorm Mountains does snow li e all year. However, in
colder climates like Greenland, the Norwegian mountains and the Alps a lot of the
winter snowfall survives the summer. Therefore, year after year snow builds up and
is compacted into ice. This ice moves slowly downhill as a glacier. A large mass
of ice covering a vast area is known as an ice sheet. Where the moving ice is
channelled into a valley a valley glacier forms (Fig 1.12).
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
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T EA CH ER GU I D E
Fig 1.12
In the Ice Age, which lasted from 2.5 million years ago until 10,000 years ago,
Britain’s climate was much colder. At one time ice covered the land as far south as
the River Thames (Fig 1.13), so that much of Britain’s landscape has been shaped by
glacial erosion and deposition.
Fig 1.13
Ice erodes the landscape in two ways.
1.
Plucking
Loose rocks on the valley floor become frozen into the glacier and are
‘plucked’ away as the glacier moves on.
2.
Abrasion
The plucked rocks frozen into the bottom of the glacier act like the teeth of a
file and scratch and scrape the rocks that the ice moves over.
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GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
T EA CH ER GU I D E
These two processes are responsible for the largest and most spectacular landscape
features in the British Isles and these will be studied in Section Three.
The material transported by the glacier is called moraine. This is deposited where
the ice melts. Thus the glacier acts like a slow -moving conveyor belt, depositing a
steady supply of rocks in a pile at the end of the glacier (Fig 1.14).
Fig 1.14
This pile of rocks is called the terminal (end) moraine. If the glacier melts at one
particular spot for a long time, the terminal moraine can become quite large.
The meltwater from the end of the glacier washes away a lot of moraine and spreads
it out over the valley floor as an outwash plain (Fig 1.14). These deposits look
very different from the moraine (Fig 1.15).
Fig 1.15
The rocks in the moraine are different shapes and sizes and often have sharp edges.
On the other hand the outwash has been deposited by rivers of meltwater flowing
from the ice. The running water rolls the rock fragments so that they become
rounded. During warm weather the ice melts rapidly so that torrents of water flow
from the ice. These can carry large fragments. However, in cold weather only a
trickle of water may flow. This can only carry small fragments like sand. In this
way the running water sorts the deposit into layers of sand and gravel.
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
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T EA CH ER GU I D E
When the climate warmed up and the ice retreated, the moraine frozen into the
bottom of the ice was left as a soil called boulder clay.
(h)
The Work of the Wind
The wind erodes the landscape in two ways.
1.
It picks up material and blows it away.
2.
Sand which is being carried by the wind may be blown against rocks. It
‘sandblasts’ the rocks. This method is used to clean the surface of a dirty
building. A jet of air and sand is directed at the stonework.
Wind erosion is most powerful in situations where there is neither moisture nor
plant roots to hold soil or sand particles together – as is the case in hot deserts.
However, in the mild, damp climate of the British Isles wind action is limited to:
(i)
bare gravel patches in high mountains;
(ii) ploughed fields in a dry Spring; and
(iii) along coastlines where there are extensive sandy beaches.
In the last case onshore winds may blow sand up the b each. This may become
lodged around obstructions such as the strand line of dried seaweed and driftwood
(Fig 1.16).
Fig 1.16
wi n d
0. 5m
s ea
s tra n d l i ne
s an d
l od g in g
be h i nd
s tra n d l i ne
m ater ia l
This can build up into a sand dune as more sand accumulates (Fig 1.17).
Fig 1.17
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GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
T EA CH ER GU I D E
Because the wind constantly blows sand up the gentle side and down the steep side,
the dune can advance inland (Fig 1.18).
Fig 1.18
This can lead to good farmland being buried by sand (for example, at Culbin, near
Elgin). To prevent this sand dunes can be fixed by planting fast -growing marram
grass and coniferous trees. The Culbin dunes are now Culbin Forest.
However, dunes are eventually colonised naturally by plants. On dune coasts in the
British Isles there are series of dunes lying parallel to the coast, with those farthest
inland being oldest and covered by the biggest variety of plants (Fig 1.19).
Fig 1.19
These dry, salty areas have little agricultural value other than for forestry. But, they
have considerable value for wildlife and recreation. Consequently, many are
conserved as Nature Reserves or are converted into golf courses, such as at St
Andrews in Fife, Troon in Ayrshire and Royal Birkdale in Lancashire.
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
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T EA CH ER GU I D E
Activity Sheets
Outcomes
Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2
Knowledge and Understanding
Example of physical weathering process – freeze-thaw action.
Example of chemical weathering process – solution of limestone.
Processes of erosion, transport and deposition by:
•
•
•
•
work
work
work
work
of
of
of
of
rivers,
the sea,
ice,
the wind.
GMTs
Draw annotated sketches.
Do experiments.
Draw cross-section.
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GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
T EA CH ER GU I D E
Information Book Section 1(a): Introduction
1.
What is the difference between weathering and erosion?
2.
Which one of the following is an example of weathering?
(a)
(b)
(c)
3.
Waves meet the coast at an angle and carry sand along the beach.
Some minerals in a rock react with rainwater and the rock crumbles.
A glacier moves slowly down a valley and makes it deeper and wider.
Your teacher may show you a piece of sandstone and a piece of shale. These
have been soaked in water for a few hours and then frozen or VIDEO.
Describe what happens to these rocks as they thaw out.
Information Book Section 1(b): Freeze-thaw action
Physical Weathering
4.
What happens to the volume of water when it freezes?
5.
What happens to cracks in rocks when water in them freezes?
6.
If freeze-thaw action continues for a long time, what will eventually happen to
the rock?
7.
What is scree?
8.
Look at Fig Q8.
Draw a sketch and annotate it to show
(i)
(ii)
where freeze-thaw action is occurring,
scree.
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
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T EA CH ER GU I D E
Fig Q8: Dow Crag, Lake District
Information Book Section 1(c): The effect of rainwater on
limestone
Chemical Weathering
Using small pieces of limestone or chalk set up two test tubes or VIDEO.
Test Tube 1: limestone + water
Test Tube 2: limestone + dilute acid
9.
(a)
(b)
What happens to the limestone in water?
What happens to the limestone in acid?
10.
Why is rainwater acidic?
11.
What happens to cracks (joints) in limestone when rainwater drains alo ng
them?
Checkpoint 1
Answers
1–7, 9–11
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GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
Answer
8
T EA CH ER GU I D E
Extension exercises
Use the resources provided by your teacher to help you do the following
exercises. Write notes and draw diagrams.
E1
Find out how exfoliation occurs.
E2
Find out how plant roots cause weathering.
E3
Find out how salt weathering occurs.
Answers
E1, E2, E3
Information Book Section 1(d): Erosion, Transport and
Deposition
12.
Give two examples of human activities which resemble the effects of erosion.
13.
Indicate whether the statements below refer to erosion, transport or
deposition.
(a)
In the desert the wind blasts the rocks with sand to eat away the rocks in
its path.
(b)
When the ice sheet melted, material called boulder clay was left behind.
(c)
An esker is a long ridge of sand and pebbles which was once the bed of a
river within a glacier. It was dumped when the glacier melted.
(d)
Vast areas of Canada have been carved by ice sheets. Many hollows in
the landscape, often filled by lakes, were scraped out of the surface rock
by the ice.
(e)
The sand storm in the desert was violent. The wind had picked up the
sand and was moving it through the air with terrific force.
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
31
T EA CH ER GU I D E
The Work of Rivers
Workcard 1
Copy the table below.
Do the experiment and record the results in the table or VIDEO.
Angle of Slope
(degrees)
14.
Distance
(in cm)
Time
(in seconds)
Speed =
Distance
(in cm per sec) Time
When is the current faster – with the gentle or the steep slope?
Workcard 2
Copy the table below.
Do the experiment and record the results in the table or VIDEO.
Slope
Material
Time
Sand
Gentle
(5°-10°)
Gravel
Sand
Steep
(20°-30°)
Gravel
15.
Which is moved more easily – sand or gravel?
16.
Why do you think this is the case?
17.
What effect does steepening the slope have on the speed at which sand and
gravel are moved?
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GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
T EA CH ER GU I D E
Workcard 3
Do the experiment or VIDEO.
18.
What happens to the speed of the current when the discharge is bigger?
19.
What happens to the sand and gravel when the discharge is bigger?
Information Book Section 1(e)(i)
20.
Describe four ways in which a river transports material.
21.
In which of these ways are large pebbles and boulders moved?
22.
In which of these ways are the fine mud par ticles moved?
23.
Under what two conditions is a river able to move large pebbles or boulders?
A
B
C
D
24.
when
when
when
when
the
the
the
the
river flows down a steep slope.
river flows down a shallow slope.
discharge is high (the river is in spate or flood).
discharge is low (the river is not in spate).
What is alluvium?
Workcard 4
Do the experiment or VIDEO.
25.
Where does the stream cut down most quickly?
26.
Do the rapids stay in the same place or move upstream or move downstream?
27.
What kind of valley is made as the stream erodes at the rapids? (Is it wide or
narrow? Are the side slopes steep or gentle?)
28.
What happens at the end (the mouth) of the stream?
29.
Why do you think the pebbles on a river bed are rounded?
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
33
T EA CH ER GU I D E
Information Book Section 1(e)(ii)
30.
Describe how a pothole is formed in a river bed. Use diagrams to help you
explain the process.
31.
What is a narrow steep-sided valley called?
32.
What shape does a river valley have if the slopes have been weathered and
eroded?
33.
Why is alluvium deposited at the mouth of a river?
34.
What is a meander?
35.
Draw a diagram to show where erosion and deposition occur on a meander.
36.
Where is the current fastest around a meander – on the outside or the inside of
the bend?
37.
Look at Fig Q37 below, showing a meander. Draw a simple sketch and label it
to show:
where erosion is occurring;
where deposition is occurring;
where the main current is flowing.
Fig Q37: River meander, Chirnside, Scottish Borders
Photo:British Geological Survey, ©NERC. All rights reserved .
34
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
T EA CH ER GU I D E
38.
(a)
Copy framework Fig Q38B. Use the depth data in Fig Q38C to draw a
cross-section of the river bed.
Fig Q38A: A meander on the River Devon
c ur r en t d ir ec t i on
20m
N
X
1
2
3
r i v er
Y
l in e of s ec t i o n wi t h
num be r e d s am pl e p o in ts
Fig Q38B
Fig Q38C: Statistical data at sample points
Sample point
1
2
3
Speed (cm/sec)
25
61
88
Depth (m)
0.4
1.5
2.2
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
35
T EA CH ER GU I D E
(b)
Look at Figs Q38A, Q38C and your cross -section. Explain the
relationships between river speed, river depth, erosion and deposition.
39.
Describe how a delta is formed. Use diagrams.
40.
Why do deltas not form at the mouth of every river?
Extension exercises
Use the resources provided by your teacher to answer the following. Wherever
possible, draw diagrams to illustrate your answers.
E1
What are interlocking spurs?
E2
How is a waterfall formed?
E3
Explain why river valleys in dry areas are often gorges, whereas river
valleys in wet areas are usually V-shaped.
E4
What is a braided river channel?
E5
How is an ox-bow lake formed?
E6
Name three rivers which have deltas.
Checkpoint 2
Answers
12–29, 31–34
36, 40
Answers
30, 35, 37–39
E1–E6
Information Book Section 1(f): The Work of the Sea
41.
In what sort of weather is wave action most powerful?
42.
Describe two ways in which waves erode cliffs.
43.
Why are the pebbles on a beach rounded?
36
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
T EA CH ER GU I D E
44.
Explain how sand is formed by wave action.
45.
Describe two other ways in which sand is formed.
46.
Copy Fig Q46 below and label it to show where erosion and deposition are
occurring.
Fig Q46
Checkpoint 3
Answers
41–46
The Work of Ice
Information Book Section 1(g)
47.
In what sort of climate do glaciers occur?
48.
Name at least three countries in which glaciers are found. You may need to
look at an atlas.
49.
How is snow changed into ice?
50.
What is the difference between an ice sheet and a valley glacier?
51.
When did the Ice Age end in Britain?
52.
How far south did ice cover Britain during the Ice Age?
A piece of hardboard painted with emulsion paint and an ice cube
with sand grains frozen into one side or VIDEO.
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
37
T EA CH ER GU I D E
53.
(a)
Rub the painted board with the smooth side of the cube. What happens?
(b)
Rub the painted board with the rough side of the ice cube. What
happens?
54.
Describe the two ways in which ice erodes the landscape.
55.
What is moraine?
56.
Describe how a terminal moraine is formed. Draw diagrams.
57.
How do extra-large terminal moraines form?
58.
What shape are the fragments in moraine?
59.
What shape are the fragments in meltwater deposits?
60.
Explain the difference between moraine and meltwater deposits.
61.
Why are the meltwater deposits formed in layers of sand and gravel?
Checkpoint 4
Answers
47–55
57–61
Answer
56
Extension exercises
E1
38
Copy the cross-section below and annotate it to show terminal moraine,
boulder clay and outwash plain. Also, draw in the position of the glacier
during the Ice Age.
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
T EA CH ER GU I D E
E2
Explain the formation and distribution of the surface deposits in Zones 2, 3
and 4 in Denmark.
E3
Use resources provided by your teacher to help you answer these questions.
(a)
What are glacial striations and how are they formed?
(b)
What is a fluvio-glacial deposit?
Answers
E1–E3
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
39
T EA CH ER GU I D E
The Work of the Wind
Workcard 5
62.
Which pile of sand is more easily blown?
63.
Which particles, large or small, are more easily blown?
64.
Which process, erosion or deposition, occurs where the wind is strongest?
65.
Which process occurs where the wind slows down?
66.
(a)
In which of the following places would wind er osion be most likely?
Sahara Desert
(b)
Central Scotland
Amazon Rain Forest
Explain your answer.
67.
Where is wind action effective in the British Isles?
68.
With the help of a diagram describe how a sand dune can develop on a coast.
69.
Explain how a sand dune can advance inland. Draw a diagram.
70.
What problem can this cause?
71.
Describe the measures that can be taken to fix sand dunes.
72.
Look at Fig Q72.
Fig Q72: Cross-section of a dune coast
40
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
T EA CH ER GU I D E
(a)
In which direction is the prevailing wind blowing?
(b)
Which of the dunes, A, B or C is the youngest?
(c)
Which of the dunes A, B or C will have the widest variety of plants
growing on it?
73.
Give two uses to which dune coasts can be put.
74.
Look at Fig Q74.
Draw a sketch and label it to show sand and trees.
Draw an arrow on the sketch to show direction of wind.
Fig Q74: Advancing sand dune
Photo: British Geological Survey, © NERC. All rights reserved.
Checkpoint 5
Answers
62–67
70–73
Answers
68, 69
74
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
41
T EA CH ER GU I D E
Extension exercises
Use resources provided by your teacher to describe and explain the formation of
the features below. Write notes and draw diagrams.
E1
E2
E3
E4
E5
Barchan
Loess
Rock pedestal or ‘mushroom’ rock
Ventifact
Yardang
Checkpoint
Answers
E1-E5
42
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
T EA CH ER GU I D E
Workcard 1
1.
Take a piece of plastic guttering (ideally more than 150cm long) and set it up
as shown with one end supported by a thin wooden block. This should give
the guttering a gentle slope of less than 5°. Measure the slope with a
protractor or angle meter.
Pour water very slowly into the upper end of the gutter.
Drop a spot of red dye into the stream.
Use a stopwatch to time how long it takes to reach the end of the gutter.
Enter the result in the table.
2.
Replace the thin block with a thicker one so that the slope is steeper (at least
15°).
Repeat the experiment and record the result in your table.
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
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T EA CH ER GU I D E
Workcard 2
1.
Set up the guttering as in Workcard 1, making the slope very gentle (5° –10°).
Spread a little sand along the bottom of the guttering.
Pour water steadily from a sprinkler on to the top end of the guttering.
Time how long it takes to wash all the sand into the bucket.
Record result in your table.
2.
Repeat the experiment with gravel (ideally large, flat pieces) in the guttering.
3.
Repeat the experiment with a steep slope (20°–30°) using sand.
4.
Repeat the experiment with a steep slope (20°–30°) using gravel.
Remember to record the results in your table.
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GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
T EA CH ER GU I D E
Workcard 3
The amount of water which flows is called the discharge.
This experiment examines what happens when the discharge is increased in a river
channel.
1.
Set up the guttering at an angle of 5°–10°.
Put a mixture of gravel and sand into the guttering.
Pour half a litre of water slowly (taking at least 10 seconds) on to the top of
the guttering. This is a small discharge.
2.
Repeat the experiment, but increase the discharge by pouring a litre of water
in 5 seconds.
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
45
T EA CH ER GU I D E
Workcard 4
You will need:
sand tray – 20cm x 30cm and 7cm deep approximately (an A4 size cardboard box
lined with polythene will do)
fine sand
water bottle with pourer
foil top from a milk bottle
plastic carton and a bucket for bailing out water
polythene
1.
Make a landscape like that shown above, as follows. Make the shape with
damp sand, cover it with polythene, place more sand on the polythene, and
make a straight channel with your finger.
2.
Pour water gently on to the milk top.
Bail out water from the bottom if you need to.
Watch carefully as the stream makes a valley.
46
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
T EA CH ER GU I D E
Workcard 5
You will need:
hairdryer
sand and fine gravel
water and a sheet of paper or tray 50cm long.
1.
Mix up some sand and fine gravel.
2.
Take half the mixture and mix in some water.
3.
Place a pile of dry sand/gravel and a pile of damp sand/gravel side by side at
the end of the tray or paper.
4.
Turn on the hairdryer and direct the ‘wind’ along the surface.
5.
Watch carefully what happens.
GEO G R AP H Y: LAND S C AP E S
47