Jung: Analytical Psychology
Jung’s shift from Freud
Jung did not believe the libido was primarily sexual, as Freud did.
Jung thought it was a broad spiritual energy, a general life force. He also
believed there was much personality development in adulthood, unlike
Freud. Rather than trying to unearth past life experiences repressed into the
unconscious, as Freud did, Jung preferred to study the direction personality
was going through dreams analysis & fantasies. Jung analyzed psyche using
the language of mythology, rather than scientific analysis. This causes
Jungian theory to be dismissed to some extent by hard scientists. Freud
himself rejected Jung’s mysticism, even though Freud used Greek myths to
describe the complexes he recognized in the psyche.
Biography
Carl Jung was the son of a minister, and grandson of a physician, so
he had a background in mysticism and science. Jung’s theory served as a
bridge between the two, in his mind. His mother was psychic, as well as
being mentally unstable, which obviously had a deep influence on the boy.
His scientific work included developing a word association test to uncover
emotional complexes of patients. Jung was a protégé of Freud at first, being
designated the “crown prince” who would take Freud’s place in the
psychoanalytic movement. Part of the cause of the rift between Jung and
Freud had to do with Freud trying to protect his paternal authority with Jung
by refusing to reveal personal associations with his own dreams, etc. Freud
was not willing to be personally analyzed by another, and Jung saw this as a
violation of psychoanalytic creed. Following deep disagreements, Jung
withdrew from his pursuits into a midlife introspection. This has been
described as a fragmentation of the self. Jung described two personalities
within himself, but he didn’t collapse into pathology. Jung began exploring
the mystic aspects of his theory, gaining advocates along the way. He
himself had psychic experiences, and he began to understand these as a
manifestation of the collective unconscious. Jung began to understand his
own psyche as a hero type- confronting threats (rejection by his peers) in the
quest for truth and understanding.
Structure of personality- Jung did believe the personality had both
conscious and unconscious elements, primarily the ego as conscious.
 The psyche and the Self: the Personality as a whole
o Jung referred to the personality as the psyche, meaning spirit
or soul, as an effort to integrate all aspects of the personality.
He also believed that libido flowed between the conscious and
unconscious elements as is necessary for healthy adaptation.
Some times in life we are engaged with working within the
world successfully, other times we are focused on
understanding our inner needs better & responding to them.
o The Self was the total integrated personality. It includes all of a
person’s qualities and potentials.
o Compensation is the nature of the relationship between the
conscious and unconscious. So if a person is consumed with the
demands of the material world, s/he will be ignoring
unconscious needs. They will come out in the dream state, in
order to compensate for what is being neglected. One example
is the finding that people who are repressors- people who
repress or deny aggressive feelings- will dream more often of
aggression. This process allows the Self to develop toward
wholeness. Compensation offers a means of establishing
homeostasis, balance between conscious & unconscious.
o Individuation is the process of restoring wholeness to the
psyche in adult development. In youth we focus on social
identity or career/ personal successes, repressing out of
awareness our human frailties. Closer to midlife, imbalances are
restored. The person explores other aspects of personality and
reintegrates even the shadow side of the personality.
o Transcendent function occurs later in individuation as all the
diverse aspects of the person are unified. If this process is
resisted, out of fear or control issues, there can be physical
illness, neurosis which could actually force the person to
integrate the hidden aspects of self. One becomes his/her most
individual self through this process of individuation. No longer
do we need to meet other people’s expectations for who we
should be, we need to be true to ourselves.
 Ego is the most conscious aspect of personality. The ego is the
“gatekeeper to consciousness.” The ego allows us a personal identity
to filter all the experiences and thoughts of daily life. The other role of
the ego is as center of our will. It enables us to strive for conscious
goals. The ego is not the center of our personality, as we need to
integrate the unconscious parts of personality to have balance.
o Ego inflation is identifying too closely with conscious
experience as our self. Adverse circumstances will conspire to
force us out of such a narrow identification, though. This may
be job burnout, midlife crisis, losses that the person cannot
control, forcing a recognition of the limitations of ego control.
 Persona is the part of personality that adapts to the world- the masks
we wear, the roles we play, which are shaped by other people’s
reactions to us, our mistakes or successes. We construct our persona
in response to others’ reinforcers. So we stress and increase the things
we get strokes for- attractiveness, sexuality, intelligence- and ignore
or deny the other aspects of self. When social roles change, it can
cause deep distress as people don’t know how to act effectively. This
is to some extent what is happening to men in American society as
social expectations have changed without giving men clear directions
on how to adapt. Retirement is also a shift of social roles for which
many men are completely unprepared for and causes depression &
loss of identity. Rites of initiation can reduce this. Specific clothing
may signify shift in status (and in dreams, lack of clothes signifies a
lost or inadequate persona.)
 Shadow is all the aspect of personality that have been repressed or
ignored. They were rejected because they weren’t consistent with selfconcept. These may or may not be negative qualities. (Dr. Jekyll and
Mr. Hyde is particularly negative.) But in the past, women were
expected to be submissive and nurturing, so their qualities of
assertiveness, organization, rationality were rejected. If the shadow
side is not integrated and valued, the split between image and dark
self widens, and the shadow self becomes uglier and more demanding.
The shadow can be thought of as “gatekeeper to the unconscious.”
When the shadow erupts, it produces moral conflict. The shadow can
be seen as frightening, if one fears the unconscious, but it can help a
person dismantle the ego as dominant personality structure, allowing
for more balance and maturity. The shadow which is integrated can
bring more energy and creativity to the psyche.
o Projection of the shadow – the shadow is seen in dreams as
the same sex as the dreamer. The negative qualities of the
shadow suggest the qualities the dreamer has repressed. In
waking life, qualities of the shadow may be projected onto a
person or group of persons- leading to discrimination of groups.
 Anima and animus are the rejected aspects of self as regards gender.
Men generally reject aspects of emotionality as inappropriate. Women
may reject aspects of power and aggression as unfeminine. The anima
is a man’s repressed feminine qualities, and the animus is a woman’s
repressed masculine qualities. If these qualities are not allowed
conscious acceptance, they will possess the person- unconscious
qualities will control a person’s conscious behavior. Men possessed
by their anima act moody and emotional. Women possessed by their
animus are opinionated and preoccupied with access to power.
o Projection of the anima or animus occurs as the unconscious
anima or animus is projected onto others, particularly people of
the opposite sex, parent, lovers, etc. Depending on where a
person is in development, different projections are seen. In the
beginning of the process, a man is rejecting his “inner
femininity” may belittle a woman for her sentimentality, as he
rejects his own sentimental nature. Later as he integrates this,
he will stop criticizing women who represent that quality.
Women will attack in men qualities of dominance or
independence. As they develop their own animus, though, they
come to accept these qualities in men. Falling in love is an
expression of the projection of the anima/ animus. It is
irrational, beyond the ego to control. The lover feels whole
when with the loved one, as the qualities of the opposite sex are
present and available to the other from that person. In a healthy
relationship, both people are encouraged to develop these
opposite qualities and potentials. Projection is no longer
necessary, as each person is developing to wholeness. Then
each person can develop naturally without having to play a part
for the other. A healthy relationship allows each person to show
the entire self- shadow and all, without judgment/
condemnation. This promotes individual integration.
 Personal unconscious is the unconscious of each person that is
developed due to one’s unique experiences. This may be due to
repressed qualities/ experiences that have caused shame or fear. Jung
believed that the unconscious was simply there, however, at birth and
may not be as a result of repression.
 Collective unconscious was a deeper layer of the unconscious which
Freud never explored. Jung believed this level of unconscious was
shared by all humans, passed through the generations through our
DNA and brain structure. We are prewired to tap into this common
unconscious, as shown by common mythology across cultures. He
compared this to the instincts that animals have- to build specific
nests, even when not raised with others of their species.
o Archetypes are primordial images that are similar in all people.
They are the basic units of the collective unconscious. They
predispose us to react to the world in certain waysinstinctually, if you will. We try to integrate these images into
roles we play- we try to be a mother in the way we have imaged
the good mother. All personal experience is interpreted through
these archetypal patterns.
o Genetics and the collective unconscious- Jung believe the
collective unconscious follows the laws of inheritance. So
different races and ethnic groups inherit different variations of
this unconscious- a “racial unconscious.”
o The Shadow and Anima or Animus as archetypes- the
content of the shadow, as well as anima and animus are shaped
by a culture, along with the gender roles it promotes. These are
the closest archetypes to conscious awareness. Others are
deeper and are reflected in stories & myths.
o Other archetypes
 Great mother can be seen in images of the Madonna, as
well as fertility symbols of ancient cultures.
 Spiritual father archetype incorporated the aspect of
spirituality with masculinity. This was seen in portrayals
of God as masculine. “Wise old man.”
 Hero is one who confronts great enemies to win mighty
battles that benefit others. They have deep spiritual forces
that allow them to conquer powerful opponents. It is also
related to the internal struggle to separate from the
mother in the effort to establish individuality.
 Trickster are simple-minded in image but they have the
ability to transform a staid environment- or personality.
Clown therapy can integrate the shadow self. The
trickster is also seen as a collective shadow- all the
inferior traits of character.
 Mandala is an archetype of order- a circle in a square- a
symbol that facilitates spiritual development. People may
dream of mandalas when they are in the midst of great
conflict. The symbol represents a more balanced Self,
emerging wholeness.
 Transformation is represented by alchemy- turning lead
into gold, the quest for the philosopher’s stone, which
enables transformation. Great journeys also represent
transformation in the service of development.
 Psychosis: Dangers of the Collective Unconscious are
seen in hallucinations- the unconscious overwhelms the
ego and spills out uncensored. These hallucinations often
show images of the archetypes.
Symbolism and the collective unconscious- Jung believed the unconscious
manifests itself in symbols, often symbols unique to the dreamer, but also
symbols representing the collective unconscious. Symbols form at the
intersection of the conscious and unconscious. Jung saw similarities between
psychotic experiences and ancient art & mythology. He thought these
similarities confirmed the collective unconscious.
 Numinous is the feeling that the collective unconscious offersspiritual or awesome in its nature. Symbols do not need to be
explained into total consciousness, as they have value when they
function in the unconscious. Bettleheim designed an interesting
experiment with young boys- exposing them to either fairy tales with
all the frightening elements deleted, or fairy tales with traditional
frightening imagery. Boys who had the traditional fairy tales acted out
less than the boys who had been told tales with all frightening imagery
removed. So Jung believed that fairy tales are a way of encouraging
creativity in facing life issues.
 Myths and religion - Jung saw participation in traditional religion as
useful in tapping into the energy of the unconscious without being
overcome by it. He did believe we should participate in the religion of
our background, however, as we do not have the lens to fully
understand a very different mythology correctly. He believed religious
myths were most important, as they offered guidance for living and
personal development. Religious beliefs should not be quantified by
science, however, so he would disagree with the current debate over
creationism and evolution.
 Modern myths tap into the wisdom of the ages, so they offer
guidance today. But these myths have been modernized for current
populations. George Lucas was a student of Joseph Campbell, a
mythologist & Jungian scholar. From that immersion, Lucas produces
such modern myths as Raiders of the Lost Ark. The popular book, The
DaVinci Code is also tapping into that hunger to understand the world
from a spiritual perspective.
Therapy is designed to aid the unconscious in establishing balance with the
ego. It focuses on dream material in a face-to-face encounter between
therapist and patient. He believed the unconscious was an ally in directing
growth.
 Complexes are isolated parts of the psyche that have been cut off
from the whole. They must be retrieved to integrate the full
personality. Complexes are emotions and thoughts that are conflicted.
They center on a theme which has archetypal elements, such as a hero
complex. If these complexes are not resolved, they cause maladaptive
behavior. (Unresolved hero or father complex, trying to be the
hero/father in every relationship, regardless of how undesirable it may
be to the partner.) Therapy must integrate this material with the rest of
personality.
 Word Association Test was designed by Jung to uncover complexes.
He had the patient listen to a word and say whatever came to mind.
Delays in response or unusual associations indicate a complex. This
technique stimulated Rorschach to develop the inkblot test. Although
this was a scientific attempt to define a mystical quality, interpretation
of projective measures do require a subjective intuition.
 Dreams are products of the unconscious- they are even seen as efforts
by the unconscious to direct therapy into the unresolved complexes.
Jung did not interpret dreams sexually. He often saw elements of the
collective unconscious, as well as dreams as messages from the spirit
side. Interpretation requires 3 steps:
o Recalling the dream in detail
o Amplification of the dream by elaboration on the dream
images- the nature of the, any associations that the dreamer
recognized in the people or symbols.
o Active imagination occurs as the dreamer takes the dream
imagery in waking awareness to add understanding- having a
make-believe conversation with a person from the dream. Jung
believed all persons/ symbols of a dream were aspects of the
dreamer’s psyche. Their interactions show the obstacles in the
task of individuation. The dream offers more balanced
approaches to current life issues.
 Other techniques include play therapy for children, art therapy as a
way of expressing images from the unconscious and linking them to
myths from the collective unconscious. Symptoms can be
reinterpreted to better understand the purpose of the symptom.
Anorexia can be seen as asceticism (fasting in a spiritual desire to
connect to the Divine) or desire to disappear, or become invisible,
representing one feeling s/he holds no value as a person.
Synchronicity means experiences that are coincidental but have emotional
meaning to the experiencer. Jung believed that the collective unconscious is
a psychic reality that is the basis for paranormal phenomena that can’t be
explained using science. He studied ESP, spiritualism, mental telepathy,
even séances. These unexpected coincidences offered a target for archetypal
images. The experience was worth studying to understand how the person
interpreted it. Jung himself had a number of paranormal experiences and he
never dismissed them as meaningless. He also believed these experiences
were ways of accessing all 4 functions of our psyche, if we would explore
them.
Psychological types were defined according to where a person fell on
Jung’s 3 major dimensions of personality. These dimensions include:
 Introversion- extraversion (are you more oriented toward
your inner world or external reality) This was considered the
fundamental attitude of the person.
 Thinking – feeling (interested more in facts or inner reality)
These are the rational functions, enabling us to make judgments
or decisions.
 Sensation – intuition (emphasizes the experience from events,
not the events themselves- or is concerned with possibilities,
rather than current reality, more in tune with the unconscious)
These are the 2 irrational functions that provide us with
information to base judgments.
 These dimensions can be combined to produce 16 personality
patterns.
 Dominant function is the psychological function that person prefers.
Extraverts’ dominant function is toward external reality. It is toward
inner reality if the person is an introvert.
 Auxiliary function is the function the person uses for dealing with
the less preferred direction (external reality for the introvert, internal
reality for the extravert)
Introversion and extraversion- Introverts turn their attention inward, to
their own thoughts and feelings, while extraverts turn their attention outward
to other people and the world. Jung believed these types were so
fundamentally different that these people really couldn’t understand each
other and would not be able to be close friends. If we would learn about the
differences, we could have more acceptance of the opposite type. He
believed heredity determines whether the libido is directed outward or
inward. Today we see scientific evidence of this in babies whose type is
recognizable within weeks after birth, based on reactions to novelty. It is
determined by reactivity in the limbic system in the brain. This is very stable
over time, although we can learn to work with and adapt to the world in a
more balanced way.
The four functions describe cognitive processes that we all use to make
decisions, and they ways we gain information from the world.
 Thinking and feeling are alternative ways of making value decisions,
judgments. Some people decide based on how they feel- to increase
positive emotions and they avoid doing what brings negative
emotions, anxiety, pain. Others think things through using logic,
reasons, principles. Star Trek showed this dichotomy using Spock as
the unemotional, rational Vulcan, and the humans, representing the
feeling side of judgment. These opposing types don’t tend to
understand or value each other’s ways of thinking very much. If a
person matures, however, s/he can access both means of making
decisions to make better decisions.
 Sensation and intuition represent ways of getting information about
the world. The sensing type pays attention to details and validates
what comes through the 5 senses. They may get so caught up in the
details they miss the big picture. (President Carter) The intuitive type
sees the big picture, understanding it on a level they cannot always
articulate. These types are good at recognizing what others feel and
experience. Intuitives read signals that people give off without even
knowing what it is they are reacting to. This is higher in creative or
artistic people.
Measurement and application
 Myers-Briggs Type Indicator has been developed to measure the 3
scales Jung described, as well as a fourth function- judging and
perceiving. This fourth scale measures whether the external world is
approached by a judging function (thinking or feeling) or a perceiving
function (sensing or intuition).For extraverts, the function identified
by the judging –perceiving scale is dominant. For introverts, this
function is auxiliary, since the dominant function is turned inward.
The MBTI has been confirmed as reliable and valid. Some
relationships that have been found: extraverts are higher in selfmonitoring than introverts, so they are more likely to work in sales,
are happier with their lives than introverts. Feeling types recognize
facial expressions more quickly/ accurately than thinking types.
Intuitives express greater creativity and are innovative as manages.
Sensing types have greater risk of heart disease. Thinking types score
high on assertiveness, especially if they are also extraverted.
 Business and education applications- The MBTI has been used to
determine who would be a good employee for various jobs. It also
gives sales people clues as to how to spin a sales presentation, based
on the personality of the client.
 Possible causes of types: this may be related to brain dominance and
reactivity of the limbic system of the brain. Females tend to be more
often Feeling, and males more often Thinking, as we have socialized
them to be around feeling expressions.