Taken from http://www.gemair.com/~raischc/, This is a very long outline of the topics covered in the second Semester.
Chapter 21—Reaction, Revolution, and Romanticism (1815-1850)
[See 5.12, 5.46, 5.47, 5.48]
OVERVIEW:
The forces of upheaval unleashed during the French revolutionary and Napoleonic wars were temporarily
quieted in 1815 as rulers sought to restore stability by reestablishing much of the old order to a Europe ravaged by war. Kings, landed
aristocrats, and bureaucratic elites regained their control over domestic governments, while internationally the forces of conservatism tried
to maintain the new status quo; some states even used military force to intervene in the internal affairs of other countries in their desire to
crush revolutions.
But the Western world had been changed, and it would not readily go back to the old system. New ideologies, especially
liberalism and nationalism, both products of the revolutionary upheaval initiated in France, had become too powerful to be contained.
Not content with the status quo, the forces of change gave rise first to the revolts and revolutions that periodically shook Europe in the 1820s
and 1830s and then to the widespread revolutions of 1848. Some of the revolutions and revolutionaries were successful; most were not.
Although the old order usually appeared to have prevailed, by 1850 it was apparent that its days were numbered. This perception was
reinforced by the changes wrought by the Industrial Revolution. Together the forces unleashed by the FR and the IR made it impossible to
turn back. Nevertheless, although these two revolutions initiated what historians like to call the modern European world, remnants of the
old persisted in the midst of the new.
I.
The Conservative Order, 1815-1830
 After the defeat of Napoleon, European rulers moved to restore the old order
 This was the goal of the great European powers—Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia (Quadruple Alliance)—when the met
at the Congress of Vienna in September 1814 to arrange a final peace settlement
A.
B.
A Peace Settlement after Napoleon
1.
Restoration of Kingdoms
 Leader of the congress was the Austrian foreign minister, Prince Klemens von Metternich (1773-1859), who
claimed that he was guided at Vienna by the principle of legitimacy...
 To keep peace and stability in Europe, he said it was necessary to restore the legitimate monarchs who
would preserve traditional institutions
2.
Containment of France...another guiding principle of course, was one that had long been the center of
European diplomacy  balance of power...ensuring that no one country could dominate Europe as France
had tried to do under Napoleon
The Conservative Domination: The Concert of Europe
 The peace arrangements of 1815 were the start of a conservative reaction that sought to contain the liberal and
nationalist forces unleashed by the FR
 Metternich and his supporters were representative of the ideology (a political philosophy such as conservatism or
liberalism) of conservatism
1.
Edmund Burke’s Reflections on the Revolution in France as a Guide
 Conservatism dates to the publication of this important work by Burke in 1790
 He argued that government was a contract or partnership “not only b/w those who are living, but b/w those
who are living, those who are dead, and those who are to be born”
 No one generation has the right to destroy this partnership; each generation has the duty to preserve and
transmit it to the next
 Burke did not favor the violent overthrow of a government by revolution, but he did not reject the possibility
of change...gradual not sudden
2.
Principles of Conservatism:
a.
b.
c.
3.
Obedience to political authority, organized religion was crucial to social order, hated revolutionary
upheavals, were unwilling to accept either the liberal demands for civil liberties and representative
governments or the nationalistic aspirations generated by the FR
The community took precedence over individual rights; society must be organized and ordered, and
tradition remained the best guide for order
Supported by hereditary monarchs, government bureaucracies, landowning aristocracies, and
mainstream churches (both Protestant and RC)
From Quadruple to Quintuple Alliance (+ France)
a.
Concert of Europe: one method used by the great powers to maintain the status quo they had
created was the Concert of Europe, according to which GB, Russia, Prussia, Austria, and later France,
agreed to meet periodically to discuss their interests and ensure the maintenance of peace in Europe
2
b.
Concert of Europe failed: the Quintuple Alliance adopted a principle of intervention that was based
on the right of the great powers to send armies into countries where there were revolutions to restore
legitimate monarchs to their thrones
 Britain refused to agree to this principle...it had never been the intention of the alliance to interfere
in the internal affairs of other states
 The other four ignored Britain, and used military intervention to defeat revolutionary movements in
Spain and Italy and to restore legitimate monarchs to their thrones
 COE broke down when the British rejected the p of i and ultimately prevented the Continental
powers from intervening in the revolutions in Latin America
4.
Revolt in Latin America
 Latin America remained in the hands of the Spanish and Portuguese up until the early part of the 19 th century
 When the Bourbon monarchy in Spain was toppled by Napoleon, Spanish authority in its colonial empire
weakened
 From roughly 1810-1825, nearly every country in LA achieved their independence, with the help of such
“liberators” as Simon Bolivar and Jose de San Martin
5.
The Greek Revolt, 1821-1832
 p of i could be used to support revolution if the great powers found it in their interests to do so
 in 1821, the Greeks revolted against their Ottoman Turkish masters, who had ruled them for over 400 years
 A revival of Greek national sentiment made this a popular cause...Great Britain, France, and Russia aided
Greece in their struggle
 in the Treaty of Adrianople, the Turks agreed to allow Russia, France, and Britain to decide the fate of
Greece...in 1830, they declared Greece an independent kingdom, and two years later, a new royal dynasty
was established
 up until 1830, this was the only successful revolt in Europe because the great powers themselves supported it
C.
The Conservative Dominion: The European States
 domestically, conservative governments worked to maintain the old order
1.
Rule of the Tories in Britain
 GB governed largely by the aristocratic landowning classes that dominated both houses of
Parliament...within Parliament, there were two political factions, Whigs and Tories...both groups comprised of
members of the landed classes, although the Whigs were beginning to receive support from the new industrial
middle class
2.
The Bourbon Restoration in France
a.
b.
Bourbon monarchy restored in the person of Louis XVIII (1814-1824), who understood the necessity to
accept some of the changes brought to France during the FR and Napoleonic eras...he died in 1824,
and was succeeded by his brother, Charles X
Charles’ attempt to restore the old regime as far as possible led to public outrage; by 1830, France
was on the brink of another revolution
3.
Italy...after the Congress of Vienna still largely dominated by the Austrians, and all the states had extremely
reactionary governments eager to smother any liberal or nationalist sentiment
4.
Repression of Liberalism in Central Europe
a.
b.
5.
Germany...the Vienna settlement recognized the existence of 38 sovereign states (called the
Germanic Confederation) in what had once been the HRE...Austria and Prussia were the two major
powers; the Confederation had little real power, but served as an instrument to preserve the
conservative status quo
The Stagnation of Austria...a multinational state (11 ethnicities)...forces of nationalism were strong,
though Metternich managed to repress the nationalist forces and hold the empire together
Tsarist Autocracy in Russia
a.
b.
c.
At the beginning of the 19th c., Russia was overwhelmingly rural, agricultural, and autocratic...Russian
tsar still regarded as a divine-right monarch
Alexander I (1801-1825)...initially seemed willing to institute enlightened reforms, but after the defeat of
Napoleon, implemented reactionary policies
The Reaction of Nicholas I (1825-1855)...he also turned into a strict reactionary after a military revolt at
the beginning of his reign...called the “Policeman” of Europe b/c of his willingness to suppress brutally
revolutionary movements
3
II.
The Ideologies of Change
 Although the conservative forces were in the ascendancy from 1815 to 1830, powerful movements for change were also at
work...these depended on ideas embodied in a series of political philosophies or ideologies that came into their own in the first
half of the 19th c
A.
Liberalism
 owed much to the Enlightenment and the American and French Revolutions
 became more significant as the IR progressed b/c the industrial middle class largely adopted the doctrine as its own
 most fundamental belief is that people should be as free from restraint as possible, which is evident in both economic
and political liberalism
1.
Economic liberalism (aka “classical economics”)
a.
Laissez-faire
 the state should not interrupt the free play of natural economic forces, especially supply and
demand
 government should not interfere with the economic liberty of the individual and should restrict itself
to only 3 primary functions

Defense of the country

Police protection of individuals

Construction and maintenance of public works too expensive for individuals to
undertake
b.
2.
Economic liberty...if given this by the state, ultimately individuals would bring about the maximum
good for the maximum number and benefit the general welfare of society
Political liberalism
a.
Common set of beliefs

Protection of civil liberties or the basic rights of all people (equality before the law; freedoms of
assembly, speech, press; and the freedom from arbitrary arrest)

Freedoms should be guaranteed by a written document

Religious toleration, and a growing support for the separation of church and state

Right of peaceful opposition to the government

Creation of laws by a representative assembly elected by qualified voters

Limited suffrage (equal civil rights does not mean equal political rights)
b.
Its proponents

Tied to middle-class and especially industrial middle-class men who favored the extension of
voting rights so they could share power with the landowning classes

Liberals had little desire to let the lower classes share that power...liberals were not democrats
c.
John Stuart Mill as key advocate of liberalism in the 19th century


B.
On Liberty...all individuals should have an “absolute freedom of opinion and sentiment on all
subjects” that needed to be protected from both government censorship and the tyranny of
the majority
On the Subjection of Women...the “legal subordination of one sex to another” is
wrong...differences b/w men and women have nothing to do with different natures, but simply
social practices...with equal education, women could achieve as much as men
Nationalism
 the most powerful agent for change in the 19th century
1.
Origins...arose out of an awareness of being part of a community that has common institutions, traditions, language,
and customs
 the community is the “nation”, and the primary political loyalty of individuals would be to the nation rather
than to a dynasty or a city-state or other political unit
 Nationalism did not become a popular force for change until the FR...from then on, nationalists believed that
each nationality should have its own government (idea of self-determination  right to establish their own
autonomy)
4
2.
3.
C.
Radical nature...nationalism threatened to upset the existing political order, both internationally and
nationally, which meant that nationalism was fundamentally radical
 b/c many states like the Austrian Empire were multinational, it is evident why conservatives tried so hard to
repress the radical threat of nationalism
→ a united German or Italian state also might upset the prevailing balance of power
Alliance with Liberalism...most liberals believed that freedom could be realized only by peoples who ruled
themselves...many nationalists believed that once each people obtained its own state, all nations could be
linked into a broader community of all humanity
Early Socialism
1.
2.
Origins...in the first half of the 19th c., the pitiful conditions found in the slums, mines, and factories of the IR gave
rise to another ideology for change known as socialism
 the term eventually became associated with a Marxist analysis of human society (Ch 22), but early socialism
was largely the product of political theorists or intellectuals who wanted to introduce equality into social
conditions and believed that human cooperation was superior to the competition that characterized early
industrial capitalism
“Utopians”...to later Marxists, such ideas were impractical dreams, and these early thinkers were labeled
“utopian socialists”, a label that has endured to this day (see Ch 20 outline)
 Key thinkers include Saint-Simon, Charles Fourier, Louis Blanc, Flora Tristan, Robert Owen
 Were against private property and the competitive spirit of early industrial capitalism; by eliminating these
things and creating new systems of social organization, a better environment for humanity could be achieved
III.
Revolution and Reform, 1830-1850
 beginning in 1830, the forces of change began to break through the conservative domination of Europe...by 1848, a
revolutionary fervor swept Europe
A.
The Revolutions of 1830
1.
France
a.
July Revolution...the attempt by ultraroyalists under Charles X (1824-1830) to restore the old regime as
far as possible led to a revolt by liberals in 1830 known as the JR
b.
Louis-Philippe (1830-1848)...moderate liberals appealed to the king’s cousin, Louis-Philippe to become
the constitutional king of France...he agreed...Charles X fled to France
The “bourgeois monarch”...political support for his rule came from the upper middle class...moderate
reforms that favored the bourgeoisie
c.
2.
3.
Nationalist sentiment fuels 3 revolutions
a.
Belgium...rose up against their Dutch rulers, and convinced the major European powers to accept an
independent, neutral Belgium
b.
Poland...crushed by the Russians
c.
Italian states...crushed by Metternich and the Austrians
Britain
a.
Revolution avoided by minor reforms
 Industrial leaders objected to the corrupt British electoral system, which excluded them from political power
 The Whigs realized that concessions to reform were superior to revolution

Reform Act of 1832 increased the number of male voters, primarily benefiting the upper
middle class (the lower middle class, artisans, and industrial workers still had no vote)

Industrial elite now on same level as landed aristocrats...as a result of these minor reforms,
Britain would not experience the revolutionary disturbances during 1848
B.
The Revolutions of 1848 (see 5.12)
 Despite the successful revolutions in France, Belgium, and Greece, the conservative order remained in control of
much of Europe. But liberalism and nationalism continued to grow. In 1848, these forces of change erupted once
more...again, France provided the spark.
1.
France
5
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
2.
Central Europe
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
3.
Causes: industrial and agricultural depression starting in 1846; government scandals and corruption;
government’s refusal to extend suffrage  each segment of French society, excluding aristocrats and
the upper middle class, had grievances
Overthrow of monarchy on February 24, 1848, by a group of moderate and radical republicans
June Days: workers revolt inspired by closing of the national workshops, which had been worker-run
and owned manufacturing centers [publicly financed] and led by Louis Blanc; brutally suppressed
2nd French Republic proclaimed...by December a National Assembly had been elected by universal
male suffrage...new constitution made France a republic with a unicameral legislature and a
president (elected by universal male suffrage)...disagreements b/w moderates and radicals plagued
France and elsewhere...how far is too far?
Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte elected...within four years, President Napoleon would become
Emperor Napoleon
Concessions...news of events in France inspired similar revolutions in Central Europe...typically,
monarchs tried to hold on to as much of their power as possible by offering concessions to
reformers...such things as constitutions, a free press, and jury trials
German states work towards unification...the German Confederation allowed elections, based on
universal male suffrage, to elect leaders for a pan-German parliament, whose purpose was to
prepare Germany for unification
Frankfurt Assembly...this pan-German parliament failed

Had no way of compelling the German rulers to accept the constitution they had drawn up

Since German liberals failed, leadership for unification would pass on to the Prussian military
monarchy
Austrian empire...see 5.12
Italian states...see 5.12
Outcomes
 generally speaking, the failure of the revolutionaries to stay united soon led to the reestablishment of the old
regimes
 in 1848, nationalities everywhere had also revolted in the pursuit of self-government...little was achieved
because divisions among nationalities proved utterly disastrous...instead of joining together against the old
empire, minorities fought each other
IV.
Culture in an Age of Reaction and Revolution: The Mood of Romanticism (see 5.46, 5.47, 5.48)
 At the end of the 18th c., a new intellectual movement known as Romanticism emerged to challenge the Enlightenment’s
preoccupation with reason in discovering truth
 the Romantics tried to balance the use of reason by stressing the importance of feeling, emotion, and imagination as sources
of knowing
A.
Characteristics of Romanticism
1.
2.
3.
4.
B.
Emotion, Sentiment, and the Inner World: The Example of Goethe
 The Sorrows of the Young Werther...the individual who seeks freedom to attain personal fulfillment; the tragic
figure who is misunderstood and rejected by society, but believes in his/her own worth through their inner
feelings; tragic figure who ends up “tragically”
Individualism...rebellion against middle-class conventions...for Romantics of the 19th c., long hair, beards, and
“outrageous” clothes served to reinforce the individualism that young Romantics were trying to express
The Lure of the Middle Ages...passionate interest in the past (YES!)...examples include the stories of Grimm
brothers and Hans Christian Andersen, revival of Gothic architecture, Sir Walter Scott’s Ivanhoe
An Attraction to the Bizarre and Unusual...Gothic literature of Edgar Allan Poe and Mary Wollstonecraft
Shelley...extraordinary states of experience  focus on the dreamworld, use of drugs like cocaine and opium
Romantic Poets and the Love of Nature
 Poetry ranked above all other literary forms as it was the direct expression of one’s soul
1.
2.
3.
C.
Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822)...Prometheus Unbound
Lord Byron (1788-1824)...Child Harold’s Pilgrimage, Don Juan
William Wordsworth (1770-1850)...to WW, nature contained a mysterious force that the poet could perceive
and learn from...this worship of nature led some to pantheism
Romanticism in Art and Music
 Romantic artists typically
6
believed that all artistic expression was a reflection of the artist’s inner feelings (for instance, a painting
should mirror the artist’s vision of the world and be the instrument of his own imagination)

rejected the principles of classicism (restraint, symmetry, balance)
Representative artists [see http://artchive.com/ftp_site.htm]

1.
a.
2.
Caspar David Friedrich...his landscapes convey a sense of mystery and mysticism...Man and Woman
Gazing at the Moon (pg. 440)
b.
Eugene Delacroix...Liberty Leading the People, which glorified the French Revolution of 1830
Representative musicians
 A probe into human emotions
a.
Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827)...bridge between classical and romantic styles
Chapter 22—An Age of Nationalism and Realism (1850-1871)
Overview:
Across the Continent, the revolutions of 1848 had failed. The forces of liberalism and nationalism appeared to have been
decisively defeated as authoritarian governments reestablished their control almost everywhere in Europe by 1850. And yet within 25 years,
many of the goals sought by the liberals and nationalists during the first half of the nineteenth century seemed to have been achieved.
National unity became a reality in Italy and Germany, and many European states were governed by constitutional monarchies, even
though constitutional-parliamentary features were frequently facades.
All the same, these goals were not achieved by liberal and nationalist leaders but by a new generation of conservative leaders
who were proud of being practitioners of realpolitik, the “politics of reality”.
I.
The France of Napoleon III
 After the largely unsuccessful Revolutions of 1848, a new generation of conservative leaders came to power in
Europe...foremost among them was Napoleon III (1852-1870)
A.
Louis Napoleon and the Second Napoleonic Empire
1.
Patience in Winning Support of the People
 resorted to a coup d’etat after the National Assembly voted that he could not stand for re-election to the
presidency
 restored universal male suffrage, then asked the French people to restore the empire in a plebiscite, which
they did with a resounding 97% affirmative response
2.
Election as Emperor of the Second Empire
 On December 2, 1852, Louis Napoleon became Napoleon III
B.
Policies of the Second Napoleonic Empire
1.
Authoritarian
 Napoleon III controlled the armed forces, police, civil service; only he could introduce legislation and
declare war
2.
Government Intervention in the Economy and Expansion of Industrial Growth
 Subsidies for construction of railroads, harbors, roads, and canals
3.
Rebuilding Paris by Baron von Hausmann
 Narrow streets and old city walls of Paris replaced with broad boulevards, spacious buildings, public squares,
an underground sewage system, a new water supply, and gaslights; many lower class sections tore down (had
to move to neighboring villages)
 Broad streets made it difficult for revolutionaries to erect barricades
4.
C.
“Liberal” Empire...as opposition to some of his policies mounted, Napoleon III loosened his grip a bit and
liberalized the empire
 Legalized trade unions and granted them the right to strike; legislative branch given more control
 These concessions initially strengthened his regime, but the disastrous Franco-Prussian War would be his
“Waterloo” and lead to the Third Republic
Foreign Policy: The Crimean War (1854-1856) [See 5.16]
1.
“Eastern Question”
 What should be done with the disintegrating Ottoman Empire...potential balance of power issues in the
Balkans
2.
Russian right to protection of Christian shrines in Palestine denied by Ottomans sparked the war
 Russia vs the Ottomans
 Fearful of Russian gains (Dardanelles), Great Britain and France declare war Russia and attacked them on
the Crimean peninsula in the Black Sea
 Austria refused to help Russia, leaving them without “friends” among the great powers after the war (Austria
believed Russia would remember their “ingratitude”)
3.
Outcomes
 Russians lose, and have to accept the neutrality of the Black Sea by the Treaty of Paris
7
 Not as many soldiers die due to efforts of Florence Nightingale...professionalization of nursing
 Crimean War effectively destroyed the Concert of Europe...that led to 
II.
National Unification Movements
 The breakdown of the Concert of Europe opened the way for the Italians and the Germans to establish national states...their
successful unification transformed the power structure of the Continent
A.
Italy (See 5.12, 5.18)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
B.
Failure of Mazzini’s Young Italy movement (Risorgimento) and Revolution of 1848 led to focus on the northern
Italian state of Piedmont to help achieve unity
The House of Savoy and Victor Emmanuel II...rulers of Piedmont and Sardinia
Camillo da Cavour (1810-1861) appointed prime minister
 Economic expansion meant more $ for army
 A realist, he knew his little Italian state could not defeat the Austrians  made alliance with Napoleon III in
1858
 Provoked war with Austria  early victory for Italians/French  France given Nice and Savoy, Piedmont
received Lombardy
 Early success inspired similar revolts in Parma, Tuscany, and Modena (see p 650)...joined forces with the
Piedmontese
Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882) and the Red Shirts (see picture pg 651)
 Leader of the southern Italian unification movement
 Victory in Sicily  on to the mainland  Naples and kingdom of the Two Sicilies fall by September 1860
 Garibaldi’s forces chose to turn over their conquests to Cavour’s Piedmont forces
Unification
 not complete yet because Venetia still held by Austria; Rome remained under French control
 Italy gained Venetia for siding with Prussia in the Austro-Prussian war of 1866; in 1870, the Franco-Prussian War
resulted in the withdrawal of French troops from Rome
 Italian army annexed Rome in September, 1870; Rome became new capital; Pope given Vatican State in
Rome; Victor Emmanuel II made King of Italy
Germany (See 5.12 and 5.17)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Failure of Frankfurt Assembly  Prussia and Austria being only 2 states powerful enough to unify Germany
 Prussian ascendancy due to the Zollverein (Prussian customs union that attempted to get rid of internal
tariffs, which would lead to better trade among German states)
William I Hohenzollern...tried to expand and strengthen the Prussian army; blocked by the Prussian legislature
 led to the appointment by William I of Bismarck as Prime Minister  Bismarck would dominate German and
European politics until 1890
Otto van Bismarck and Realpolitik
 Bismarck ignored the legislature and made his famous “iron and blood” speech
 “Germany does not look to Prussia’s liberalism but to her power...Not by speeches and majorities will the
great questions of the day be decided—that was the mistake of 1848-1849—but by iron and blood”
 Bismarck as the consummate realpolitik practitioner (relationship to Machiavelli)
 His active foreign policy led to war and German unification...though this was not his original intent
The Danish War (1864)...refer to map on 654
 Prussia and Austria gain Schleswig and Holstein
 To be master of Germany, Bismarck realized Austria would have to be excluded from German affairs or at
least be willing to accept Prussian domination of Ger.
The Austro-Prussian War (1866)
 Bismarck made alliances/agreements with Russia, France, and Italy
 Goaded Austria in to war in 1866
 Prussians aided by better guns (breech-loading needle gun) and a superior network of railroads
 According to the terms of peace, Austria was now excluded from German affairs; the German states north
of the Main River were organized into a North German Confederation (Protestant) controlled by Prussia
 South German (Roman Catholic) states forced into signing military agreements with Prussia
The Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871)
 Bismarck realized the French would never be content with a strong German state to its east b/c of the
potential threat to French security
 Immediate cause of war was a dispute over succession to the Spanish throne (throne of Spain offered to a
Hohenzollern prince)
 Prussian armies invaded France; French army destroyed and Napoleon III was captured
 French had to pay an indemnity of 5 billion francs; lost Alsace and Lorraine
Unification
 On January 18, 1871, William I was proclaimed kaiser or emperor of the Second German Empire
8
 “Germany had been merged into Prussia, not Prussia into Germany”
 Outcomes: German unification a victory for authoritarian and militaristic values over liberal, constitutional
sentiments; German would emerge as the strongest power on the Continent...a new balance of power was at
hand
III.
Nation Building and Reform: the National State at mid-Century
A.
The Austrian Empire (see 5.12; map on page 657)
1.
2.
3.
B.
 resulted in the Ausgleich of 1867  creation of the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary; both nations were
independent in domestic affairs
 United under Francis Joseph in foreign affairs (Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary)
Domination by the Germans and Magyars
 Still a multinational state with nationalist sentiments, such as the Slavs
Imperial Russia
1.
2.
C.
Excluded from Germany after the Austro-Prussian War of 1866
Hungarian Problem
Alexander II (1855-1881) and the Emancipation of the Serfs
 in the wake of Russia’s defeat in the Crimean War
 serfs emancipated in 1861; though given land by the government, they were subjected to their mir (village
commune, which was collectively responsible for the land payments to the gov’t)
The Zemstvos Assemblies (local government…moderate degree of self-government  public services,
education, famine relief, and road and bridge maintenance)
Britain’s Victorian Age
 Just as in the Revolutions in 1830 and 1848, Britain avoided the strife that plagued the Continent by making both social
and political reforms that enabled the country to remain stable and prosperous
1.
Queen Victoria (1837-1901)...pious complacency; moral respectability and propriety (see notes on Ch 23 and
the “cult of domesticity” and other middle-class values)
2.
Benjamin Disraeli (Conservative) and the Reform of 1867
 more than doubled the number of potential voters
 led to Liberal victory in the elections of 1868
3.
William Gladstone and the Liberal Party
IV.
Industrialization and the Marxist Response
A.
Industrialization of the Continent...b/w 1850-1871
1.
2.
B.
Marx and Marxism
1.
2.
V.
Less Barriers to International Trade
 Led to an expansion of markets
Weak Trade Unions
 Real change for the proletariat would only occur after the formation of socialist parties and socialist trade
unions, which owed their ideas to...
The Communist Manifesto
 written by the Germans Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) in 1848
 Intellectual debt to Hegel...Marx posits dialectical materialism (clash of economic classes throughout history)
 “A spectre is haunting Europe, the spectre of Communism”
 “The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles”
 Industrial Europe pitted the bourgeoisie vs the proletariat
 In the end, the proletariat would overthrow their bourgeois masters and establish a “dictatorship of the
proletariat” (socialism), which when complete would lead to a classless society with no state (communism)
 “Working men of the world, Unite!”
Marx’s Leadership in the International Working Men’s Association
Science and Culture in an Age of Realism
 B/w 1850-1870, the two major intellectual developments were the growth of scientific knowledge and a shift from Romanticism
to Realism
A.
A New Age of Science
9
1.
2.
B.
Charles Darwin and the Theory of Evolution (see A & E Biography Notes too)
1.
2.
3.
4.
C.
Ideas of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, Charles Lyell, and Thomas Malthus
Darwin’s Trip on the H.M.S. Beagle
On the Origins of Species by Means of Natural Selection (1859)
 Organic evolution (at first, only plant and animal species)
 Natural selection (“survival of the fittest”)
The Descent of Man (1871)
 Animal origins of human beings
 Like the Copernican revolution, Darwin’s ideas fundamentally challenged the special status of human
beings; some tried to apply Darwinian principles to society Social Darwinism (see Ch 24)
A Revolution in Health Care
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
D.
Proliferation of Discoveries
 Laws of thermodynamics the focus of 19th century physics
 Louis Pasteur and the germ theory of disease
 Dmitri Mendeleyev and the periodic law of elements
 Michael Faraday and electromagnetic induction
Faith in Science’s Benefits
 due to the increasing and often dramatic material gains generated by science and technology led to a
growing faith in the benefits of science
 19th century as a century of increasing secularization...belief in materialism, especially after Darwin’s theories
New clinical medicine a result of clinical observation and knowledge gained from detailed autopsies...first
achieved in Paris hospitals
Louis Pasteur and the germ theory of disease
 Pasteurization
Edward Jenner and Smallpox
 Vaccination
Joseph Lister and the antiseptic principle
 development of anesthesia also helped surgeons
New medical schools...the Johns Hopkins model (1893) would be emulated worldwide
Women in Medicine...Elizabeth Blackwell
Realism in Literature and Art (see 5.46, 5.47, 5.48; also refer to History Alive handout that compares neoclassicism,
romanticism, and realism)
 The belief that the world should be viewed realistically, frequently expressed after 1850, was closely related to the
materialistic outlook
 Evident in the realpolitik of Bismarck and Cavour, realism became a movement in the literary and visual arts as well
1.
The Realistic Novel
a.
Gustave Flaubert...Madame Bovary
b.
William Thackeray...Vanity Fair
c.
Charles Dickens...Hard Times, Great Expectations, Oliver Twist, etc
2.
Realism in Art [see http://artchive.com/ftp_site.htm]
a.
Gustave Courbet...The Stonebreakers
b.
Jean-Francois Millet...The Gleaners
E.
Music: The Twilight of Romanticism
1.
2.
Franz Liszt...introduced the concept of the modern piano recital
Richard Wagner...and a German national opera
Chapter 23—Mass Society in an “Age of Progress” (1871-1894)
OVERVIEW: Please read the excellent introduction to this unit in Spielvogel, pp 464-465
I.
The Growth of Industrial Prosperity (Second Industrial Revolution)
 First IR had concentrated in areas of textiles, railroads, iron ore, and coal...Second IR focused on steel, chemicals, electricity,
and the internal combustion engine
A.
New Products and New Markets
1.
2.
3.
The Substitution of Steel for Iron...Henry Bessemer...made for lighter, smaller, faster machines and engines, as
well as railways, ships, and armaments
Chemicals...Germans and French...alkalies (textile, soap, & paper industries), dyes, photographic plates and
film, fertilizers
Electricity, the New Source of Energy...powered homes, shops, and industrial enterprises...led to new inventions
[lightbulb—Edison and Swan; telephone—A.G. Bell; radio—Marconi]...illuminated houses, cities, and
10
4.
B.
factories...used to power streetcars and subways...in factories, conveyor belts, cranes, machine
tools...electricity allowed countries w/o big coal reserves to industrialize
The Internal Combustion Engine...widespread use after developments in refining gas and oil (petroleum)...gave
rise to automobile and airplane...coupled with interchangeable parts (Eli Whitney)  assembly line of
automobiles by Henry Ford
New Patterns in an Industrial Economy
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
 in population   demand...faster transportation   in transportation costs   in prices   spending on
consumer products b/c more disposable income...mass marketing leads to stores in which a vast array of
products are offered (department store)
Germany Surpassed Britain as Industrial Superpower of Europe; both lag behind US
The Union of Science and Technology...importance of technical education
The Creation of Two Europes...western Europe more industrialized...central/eastern Europe less industrialized
A World Economy dominated (Exploited by???) by Europeans
  competition for foreign markets for raw materials and markets to buy manufactured goods...New
Imperialism
 protective tariffs at home in most countries to protect domestic markets
 Cartels to stifle competition and potential for cheaper consumer prices
C.
Women and New Job Opportunities
 worked in white-collar low wage jobs (clerks, typists, secretaries, file clerks, sales clerks)...teachers (more needed b/c
of compulsory education laws)...nurses (creation of modern hospital services)...some lower-class women had to still turn
to prostitution to make it (legal but regulated by governments in most European countries)
D.
Organizing the Working Class
1.
2.
3.
4.
II.
Socialist Parties...desire to improve their working and living conditions led many industrial workers to form
political parties and labor unions (German Social Democratic Party...inspired many SDP’s throughout Europe)
A Revision of Marxist Thought...Eduard Bernstein
a.
Evolution, Not Revolution...Marx was wrong on the imminent collapse of capitalism and worsening
conditions of proletariat...discard emphasis on revolutionary socialism...instead work within the
political process to elect own candidates and have them pass legislation to help working classes
(importance of expanding suffrage)...gradualism
b.
The Divisiveness of Nationalism...Marx thought “the working men have no country”...in reality,
socialist parties varied from country to country and remained tied to national concerns and issues
and not to a worldwide struggle
The Role of Trade Unionism...often tied to socialist parties...worked for better wages, benefits, and working
conditions...
The Anarchist Alternative...Michael Bakunin...prominent in less independent and democratic countries...turned
to assassination
The Emergence of Mass Society
A.
Population Growth
1.
2.
3.
B.
Transformation of the Urban Environment [industrialization + pop explosion = urbanization]
1.
2.
3.
C.
The Growth of Cities...many driven to cities by rural unemployment, hunger, physical want; lure of the big city 
jobs, better living conditions
Improving Living Conditions...SYNTHESIS B/W LIBERALISM AND SOCIALISM!
a.
Sanitation...water and sewage
b.
Housing...government intervention and codes
Redesigning the Cities...at times at the expense of lower class housing
The Social Structure of Mass Society (see 5.35)
1.
2.
3.
D.
Improved Public Sanitation (clean water and better sewage systems); vaccination programs
An Improved Diet (food hygiene)
Increased Emigration (60 million leave Europe b/w 1846-1932) [see 5.26]
The Elite (5%): Wealth and Status...blending of aristocracy and new wealthy industrial classes...aristocrats buy
city houses; wealthy industrial class buy country homes [think Howard’s End!]
The Middle Classes (15%): Good Conduct...middle class values  progress, science, hard-work, churchgoers,
propriety in everything [think Howard’s End!]
The Lower Classes (80%): Skilled, Semiskilled, Unskilled...importance of education
The Role of Women [“Woman Question”...reminiscent of Querelles des Femmes]
11
 gender-defined social roles: legally inferior, economically dependent, largely defined by family and household
roles
1.
The Cult of Domesticity...woman glorified in their role as mother and wife
2.
Birth Control... in birthrates [coitus interruptus, abortion, infanticide, abandonment]
3.
The Middle-Class Family...employed servants...women thus have more leisure time and time to care for
children...”togetherness” (Xmas, July 4th)...education of females important so they can be competent mothers
4.
The Working-Class Family...whenever possible, followed middle class customs; if need $ everyone
works...eventually, children viewed as dependents and not wage earners (due to compulsory education laws
and child labor laws)...10 hour workday/Saturday afternoon off
E.
Education and Leisure in An Age of Mass Society
1.
2.
III.
Primary Education for All...”being educated became a state enterprise”
a.
For a More Efficient Work Force...need to be more technical
b.
For a More Intelligent Electorate...because of  suffrage
c.
Means of Social Control (conservatives); a better, richer life (liberals)
d.
A Demand for Teachers
e.
The Increase in Literacy...mass “literature” like newspapers, magazines, and pulp fiction
Mass Leisure...leisure as the opposite of work (what people did for fun after work)
 Leisure time = evenings after work, weekends, vacation
a.
Dance Halls, Amusement Parks (experience technology like Ferris Wheels), and Beaches on the
Weekend (via improved transportation)
b.
Tourism...recreational and relaxing travel
c.
Sports...strictly organized w/ sets of rules...professionalization...primarily for entertainment...becomes
itself a big business...passive mass audiences (well, usually!)
The National State
A.
Political Democracy in Western Europe
1.
2.
3.
B.
British Reform...the growth of political democracy was one of the preoccupations of British politics after 1871,
and its cause was pushed along by the expansion of suffrage...agricultural workers enfranchised...members of
the House of Commons given a salary...gradual reform through parliamentary institutions had become the way
of British political life
France’s Third Republic...Second Empire collapsed after humiliating defeat in Franco-Prussian War...the
Constitution of 1875 created the Third Republic but only after the National Assembly had crushed the Paris
Commune
Italy’s Instability...differences b/w north and south; trouble with the papacy; government corruption widespread
(a problem that still haunts Italy); lost colonial possessions in Africa to Ethiopia
Persistence of the Old Order in Central and Eastern Europe
1.
2.
3.
Germany: Bismarck’s Conservatism...German parliament dominated by the army (considered themselves loyal
to the emperor) and Bismarck (not responsible to the Parliament, but the emperor)...Kulturkampf (“struggle for
civilization”  distrustful of Roman Catholic loyalty to new German state)...tried to minimize socialist gains by
spearheading the most progressive social security system the world had ever seen (sickness, accident, and
disability benefits as well as old-age pensions...financed by compulsory contributions from workers, employers,
and the state)
Austria-Hungary...problem of minorities continued to plague AH
Absolutism in Russia...autocratic rule the norm...revolution fomenting
Chapter 24: An Age of Modernity and Anxiety, 1894-1914
Overview:
Before 1914, most Europeans continued to believe in the values and ideals that had been generated by the Scientific Revolution
and the Enlightenment. Reason, science, and progress were still important words in the European vocabulary. The ability of human beings
to improve themselves and achieve a better society seemed to be well demonstrated by a rising standard of living, urban improvements,
and mass education. Such products of modern technology as electric lights, phonographs, and automobiles reinforced the popular
prestige of science and the belief in the ability of the human mind to comprehend the universe through the use of reason.
Near the end of the 19th century, however, a dramatic transformation in the realm of ideas and culture challenged many of these
assumptions. A new view of the physical universe, an appeal to the irrational, alternative views of human nature, and radical innovative
forms of literary and artistic expression shattered old beliefs and opened the way to a modern consciousness. These changes served to
provoke a sense of confusion and anxiety before 1914 that would become even more pronounced after the war.
I.
Toward the Modern Consciousness: Intellectual and Cultural Developments
A.
The “New Physics”
12
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
B.
Toward a New Understanding of the Irrational
1.
2.
3.
4.
C.
3.
4.
His theories undermined the rational nature of the human mind...added to the uncertainties of the age
Interpretation of Dreams (1900)  basic foundation for psychoanalysis
a.
Human behavior strongly determined by the unconscious (the “second mind” that was the home
to the repressed experiences and inner drives of which people were largely oblivious)
b.
To explore the unconscious, he relied on hypnosis (origin of the psychiatrist’s couch) and the dream
world (“royal road to the unconscious”)
c.
The inner life of humans as a battleground b/w the id (center of the unconscious drives and ruled
by the pleasure principle), ego (seat of reason and coordinator of the inner life...ruled by the reality
principle), and the superego (locus of conscience and represented the inhibitions and moral values
that society in general and parents in particular imposed upon people)
d.
Ego and superego restrain the unconscious id and repressed or kept out of consciousness what
they wanted to  according to Freud, the most important repressions were sexual  Oedipus
complex (Electra complex)
Psychoanalysis as a dialogue b/w psychotherapist and patient in which therapist probed deeply into memory
in order to retrace the chain of repression all the way back to its childhood origins  by making the conscious
mind aware of the unconscious and its repressed contents, the patient’s psychic conflict was resolved
Other Freudian buzzwords: oral stage, anal stage, libido, denial, Freudian slip, transference
The Impact of Darwin: Social Darwinism and Racism
1.
2.
E.
Some intellectuals attacked the idea of optimistic progress, dethroned reason, and glorified the irrational
Friedrich Nietzsche...Western bourgeois society was decadent and incapable of any real cultural creativity,
primarily because of its emphasis on reason at the expense of emotions, passions, and instincts (relationship to
Romanticism)...he believed that humans were at the mercy of irrational life forces...blamed Christianity, the
“slave morality” that tried to inculcate pity and humility
Nietzsche believed “God is dead”  no longer able to believe in cosmic order (another blow to the “world
machine”)  no longer dependent on the “religion of pity” it was now possible to create a higher kind of being
 superman (uber-man)  beyond good and evil (not possible without a divine moral law), the supermen
would create their own values and lead the masses (dominated by the “herd mentality”)...since the masses are
sheep, Nietzsche rejected political democracy, social reform, & universal suffrage
Georges Sorel...advocated violent action as the only sure way to achieve the aims of socialism...do so by the
general strike...new socialist society, though, would have to be governed by a small elite ruling body b/c the
masses were incapable of ruling themselves
Sigmund Freud and Psychoanalysis (see A & E Biography worksheet)
1.
2.
D.
Science was one of the chief pillars underlying the optimistic and rationalistic view of the world...supposedly
based on hard facts and cold reason, science offered a certainty of belief in the orderliness of nature that was
comforting to many people for whom religion no longer had much meaning
In the 19th century, the Newtonian view of the universe still prevailed  universe a giant machine in which time,
space, and matter were objective realities that existed independently of those observing them...matter was
thought to be composed of indivisible and solid material bodies called atoms...classical (Newtonian) physics
rested on the fundamental belief that all phenomena could be predicted if they could be completely
understood (see #6)
Marie and Pierre Curie...their research on radium demonstrated that atoms were not simply hard, material
bodies but small worlds containing subatomic particles like electrons and protons that behaved in seemingly
random and inexplicable fashion
Max Planck...quantum theory posits that energy is radiated discontinuously...raised fundamental questions
about the subatomic realm of the atom
Albert Einstein...relativity theory  space and time are not absolute, but relative to the observer, and both are
interwoven into what Einstein called a four-dimensional space-time continuum...neither space nor time had an
existence independent of human experience...matter and energy reflect the relativity of time and space
Werner Heisenberg...like Curies, Planck, and Einstein, upset Newtonian physics...uncertainty principle  no one
could determine the path of an electron because the very act of observing the electron w/ light affected the
electron’s location  shattered confidence in predictability and dared to propose that uncertainty was at the
root of all physical laws (the antithesis to all thought since the Enlightenment!)
Herbert Spencer  societies were organisms that evolved through time from a struggle with their
environment...progress came from the struggle for survival...the “fit” survived...applied to working classes, SD
undercut social reform programs b/c the “fit” had risen to the top of the social ladder
Darwinian concepts co-opted by racists and nationalists (especially in Germany  Aryanism)...also used to
justify the “new” imperialism of the 19th century
The Attack on Christianity and the Response of the Churches
1.
2.
The growth of scientific thinking as well as forces of modernization presented new challenges to the Christian
churches
Industrialization and urbanization had an especially adverse effect on religious institutions  organized religion
had less influence on new urban working class
13
3.
F.
Science and religion clash  Darwinian theory...seemed to contradict divine creation...many Protestants
and Catholics refused to accommodate Christianity to modernism; others, attempted to reinterpret Christianity
in the light of new developments (like a compromise b/w old and new); William Booth and his Salvation Army
tried to reclaim the working classes for the church
The Culture of Modernity (see 6.50, 6.51, 6.52)

The revolution in physics and psychology was paralleled by a revolution in literature and the arts...rebelling
against traditional literary and artistic styles that had dominated European cultural life since the
Renaissance...these changes referred to as Modernism
1.
Naturalism  literature should be realistic; this style of writing differed w/ realism b/c it was fairly pessimistic
about Europe’s future and often portrayed characters caught in the grip of forces beyond their control 
representative writers include Emile Zola (see Dreyfus Affair), Fyodor Dostoevsky, and Leo Tolstoy
Symbolism  poets who thought objective knowledge of the world was impossible; art should function for its
own sake (ars gratia artis) instead of serving, criticizing, or seeking to understand society  William Butler Yeats
and Rainer Maria Rilke
Painting...since the Renaissance, artists had tried to represent reality as accurately as possible [see
http://artchive.com/ftp_site.htm]
2.
3.
a.
4.
II.
Impressionism...impact of the camera...sought to put into painting their impressions of the
changing effects of light on objects in nature (Monet painted the Rouen Cathedral 10
different times at different times of the day for different light)...Claude Monet, Edouard
Manet, Edgar Degas, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Camille Pissarro, Berthe Morisot, Mary Cassat
b.
Post-Impressionism...still an emphasis on light and color, but PI artists shifted from painting
objective reality to subjective reality (personal statements of what reality is) and, in so doing,
began to withdraw from the artist’s traditional task of depicting the external world...Paul
Cezanne, Vincent van Gogh, Paul Gaugin, Georges Seurat, Toulouse-Lautrec
c.
Why reject visual realism in art?  new psychology and physics questioned what reality really
was, impact of photography (this artistic medium mirrored reality perfectly), individual
consciousness became the source of meaning (the artist could now create their own reality)
d.
Cubism...used geometric shapes as visual stimuli to re-create reality in the viewers
mind...Pablo Picasso (remember his Guernica)!
e.
Abstract Expressionism...art should directly speak to the soul...to do so, it must avoid any
reference to visual reality and concentrate on color...Vasily Kandinsky, Paul Klee
Music...Claude Debussy and impressionist music...Igor Stravinsky and musical primitivism (the irrational in music
 sharp dissonance)
Politics: New Directions and Uncertainties
 The uncertainties in European intellectual and cultural life were paralleled by growing anxieties in European political life
A.
The Movement for Women’s Rights
1.
B.
Jews within the European Nation-State (see 5.25)
1.
2.
C.
IV.
Women sought improvements by focusing on specific goals  repeal marriage laws that made divorce difficult and
property laws that gave husbands almost complete control over the property of their wives...greater access to
education and male dominated professions...suffrage movement  key leader was the radical Emmeline Pankhurst
(suffrage not achieved on wide scale until after WWI)...peace movement...”new women” (sought new freedom
outside the household and new roles other than those of wives and mothers...Maria Montessori (doctor and
education reformer)
Persecution for centuries (confined to ghettos); greater freedom by the mid-19th century...Dreyfus Affair (Emile
Zola saved the day with J’Accuse, reminiscent of Voltaire fighting for a convicted Protestant in the Calais Affair)
evidence of anti-Semitism in France...revival of racism and extreme nationalism produced an new right-wing
politics aimed at Jews  culminated in the Holocaust
Zionism  Jewish nationalism...led by Theodor Herzl and his influential book The Jewish State  called for a
Jewish state in Palestine
The Transformation of Liberalism  by the end of the 19th century, liberal governments often followed policies that
undermined the basic tenets of liberalism...for instance in Britain, the Liberals and Conservative Party challenged by the
new Labour Party (comprised of trade union workers and Fabian Socialists [adhered to Bernstein’s evolutionary
socialism]...to halt the influence of Labour party, Liberals and Conservatives abandoned classical principles of laissezfaire and voted for a series of social reforms
The ‘New Imperialism’ (see Imperialism Activity notes; 5.20)
14
 Beginning in the 1880s, European states engaged in an intense scramble for overseas territory...this revival of imperialism, or
the “new imperialism” led Europeans to carve up Asia and Africa
A.
Causes of the New Imperialism (compare to old imperialism’s 3 Gs)…motives were economic, political, religious,
exploratory, and ideological in nature
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
B.
Immediate Effects
1.
2.
3.
4.
C.
Europeans claim and conquer large empires in Africa and Asia
Indigenous empires attempt reforms to meet imperialist challenge
Local people resist European domination (Boxer Rebellion in China)
Japan modernizes along western lines
Long-Term Effects
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
IV.
Industrial Revolution strengthens the West
Newly industrialized nations seek new markets and raw materials (remember Lenin’s Imperialism, the Highest
Stage of World Capitalism)
European nations compete for power and prestige
Europeans feel duty to spread western culture  White Man’s Burden
Social Darwinism
New global economy emerges
Traditional cultures and economies disrupted around the world
Western culture spreads around the globe
Resistance to imperial rule evolves into nationalist movements (will succeed, but only after WWII)
European competition for empire contributes to outbreak of WWI and WWII
International Rivalry and the Coming of War
 Before 1914, Europeans had experience almost 50 years of peace. There had been wars (including wars of conquest in the
non-Western world), but none had involved the Great Powers
A.
The Bismarckian System of Alliances (read 5.23 carefully for context of WWI!)
1.
2.
A unified Germany had upset the balance of power...by keeping the peace, Bismarck understood he
could preserve the new German state
‘Eastern Question’ still a thorn in Europe’s flesh...subject people in the Balkans calling for
independence from Ottomans
a.
Russia v Austria  both have differing interests in the Balkans (led to the failure of the Three
Emperors’ League (3-way alliance w/ Germany)
b.
Bulgaria created by Treaty of San Stefano in 1878 (Balkan states of Serbia and Montenegro
had revolted against Ottomans; Russia helped them win); Bulgaria viewed as a Russian
satellite
c.
Congress of Berlin (1878)  dominated by Bismarck...overturned Treaty of San
Stefano...Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania given independence; Bulgaria greatly reduced;
Russian humiliated; Bosnia and Herzegovina Austrians protectorates
d.
After Congress of Berlin a new system of alliances and a series of crises (read about them in
5.23) resulted in:
 Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy
 Triple Entente: Russia, France, and Great Britain
3.
Crises in the Balkans (1908-1913)...read (5.23 one more time)...alliances harden, suspicions increase,
tensions simmer...a potentially ‘Great War’ only needs a spark!
Chapter 25: The Great War
I.
Causes of the Great War (MAIN) [See 5.23]
A.
Europe at Its Peak
1.
Industrial Revolution at its peak...by 1914, western European nations were the most technologically advanced,
wealthiest societies on earth. All aspects of life were affected by this modernization  transportation,
medicine, food production, education, housing and heating are but a few examples; standards of living rose,
which  life expectancy and  infant mortality
2.
Europe had 25% of world population--highest % of any time in history
15
3.
B.
C.
D.
E.
II.
Modernization led to sense that Europeans were at the peak of world civilization and created a feeling of
superiority among many Europeans
Imperialism
1.
To maintain strong industrial economies, European nations competed for colonies; European nations carved
out overseas empires, which served as sources of inexpensive raw materials, pools of cheap labor, and outlets
for finished products
2.
In the late 1800s, a race for overseas colonies and economic dominance developed, which in several cases
nearly led to war b/w European countries (see 5.23 handout)
Militarism
1.
European nations adopted a militaristic stance in the late 1800s in order to acquire and protect colonies, as
well as to dissuade aggression by rivals.
2.
Militarism, the glorification of armed strength and the ideals of war, was a fashionable political theory at the
turn of the 20th century in Europe  rise of large sophisticated armies and navies
3.
Germany competed against England's naval superiority  Britain felt that its navy had to be as big as the next
two biggest navies on the continent, a strategy known as the “two-power rule”  when Germany  the size of
its navy, so too did England (dreadnoughts); by 1914, Russia had mobilized over 6 million troops
Nationalism
1.
Great pride in one's country or aspiring to become one's own country
2.
Germany and Italy had only recently become united, independent countries
3.
Many countries torn by tensions of different nationalist groups (Austria-Hungary, Russia, Britain)
4.
Combined with militarism and imperial competition, this increased tensions in Europe
The System of Alliances
1.
Imperialism, militarism, and nationalism all contributed to a sense that war was an inevitable end to European
competition...no European power wanted to be left to fight by itself with no diplomatic or strategic allies 
web of treaties to protect themselves…Bismarck had wanted to 1) avoid 2-front war 2) isolate France
diplomatically as result of Franco-Prussian War (France seeks revenge) 3) 3 power rule
2.
Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy
3.
Triple Entente: France, Russia, and Great Britain
4.
The alliance system, begun by Bismarck and hardened over the years, left Europe in a tenuous position in 1914:
its great economic, imperial powers, armed with massive, modern armies and inclined to support the idea of a
war for national glory, were tied to one another in a series of binding military treaties
War Erupts
A.
B.
Nationalism in the Balkans
1.
People with diverse ethnic backgrounds, languages, and religions
2.
As Ottoman Empire receded, new nations were born (Greece, Serbia, Montenegro, Romania, Bulgaria, and
Albania); early history was violent  two Balkan wars were fought in these countries in 1912 and 1913
3.
Russia and Austria competed for control of new nations
4.
Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia in 1908, which Serbia resented (wanted to join the Slavic Bosnians to form own
nation)
The Assassination of the Archduke
16
C.
D.
III.
1.
Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria visited Bosnian capital of Sarajevo on June 28, 1914 (June 28 was the
anniversary of Serbia’s most important battle—1389); the archduke’s visit on this day was a reminder of foreign
rule
2.
7 assassins from the Black Hand, a Serbian nationalist group, plot against him
3.
19-year-old Gavrilo Princip shot the Archduke and his wife (fateful wrong turn); both died instantly; Princip was
arrested and later died in prison from tuberculosis
Austria-Hungary’s Ultimatum
1.
Germany gave “blank check” of military support to Austria-Hungary no matter what happened with the
Serbians
2.
Austria-Hungary’s severe ultimatum to Serbia
3.
Serbia refuses to let Austria-Hungary’s officials run an investigation in Serbia (tantamount to relinquishing its own
sovereignty) knowing that it had the full support of Russia
4.
Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on July 28, 1914
The Alliance System Leads to War
1.
Russia supported Serbia and Germany supported Austria-Hungary
2.
Within one week, almost all of Europe plunged into war:
a.
Germany declares war on Russia and France
b.
Britain declares war on Germany after the Germans decided to attack France through the flat
coastal plains of Belgium, as opposed to through the rugged terrain of the Franco-German border
(violation of Belgian neutrality)
Alliances and Fronts of the War [See 6.03 and 6.05]
A.
B.
C.
The Alliances
1.
Triple Entente: Britain, France, and Russia  Allies
2.
Central Powers: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Ottoman Empire
The Western Front
1.
Germany tried to take France quickly with the Schlieffen Plan on the Western Front and then turn to fight Russia
2.
Instead, battle lines formed in northeastern France and changed little (war of attrition)

1916 Battle of Verdun  680,000 casualties

1916 Battle of the Somme 1,000,000 + casualties

1917 German retreat back to the heavily fortified Hindenburg line, entry of USA into the war in April,
and the Russian Revolution in November

1918 Allied naval blockade the Central Powers created dramatic shortages of food and raw materials
in Germany and Austria
The Eastern Front (Baltic Sea to Black Sea)
17
1.
Lack of modern technology caused Russia enormous defeats; ¾ of Russian troops went into battle without
weapons
IV.
In November 1917, Vladimir Lenin led a revolution that overthrew the Russian government and immediately took Russia out of the
war (see separate handout on Russian Revolution)
V.
Treaty signed with revolutionary government in Russia (Treaty of Brest-Litovsk)—Russia lost ¼ of country
D.
The Balkan Front
1.
VI.
Only victories in this front were in the Middle East, where British soldier T.E. Lawrence (Lawrence of Arabia), rallied Arab support
against the Ottomans
E.
The Italian Front
1.
F.
VII.
The Allies abandoned attempts to land in Balkans after losing key battles along the Gallipoli Peninsula
Italians joined the Triple Entente in 1915 and fought Austria-Hungary
The War Ends
1.
Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire were first Central Powers to be defeated
2.
Revolts inside Austria-Hungary and Germany helped end the war quickly
3.
Armistice signed on 11 hour of the 11 day of the 11 month (Nov 11, 1918)
New Weapons Used in War
 The Great War was a different war from any that had ever been fought in human history b/c of the modernization that had
taken place in Europe during the IR; advances that had been made to  manufacturing speed and efficiency were easily
transferable to the tools of war
A.
B.
C.
D.
The Machine Gun
1.
Modern industry replaced the single-fire, short-range rifle
2.
British machine guns fired 8 rounds per second, at a distance of 2,900 yards
Artillery
1.
Greater power and carried much further
2.
24 million shells used in the Battle of Verdun alone  “rain of shells”
Weapons of the Industrial Age
1.
75 different types of poison-gas bombs used
2.
Flame throwers
3.
Tanks
4.
Airplanes
5.
Submarines (German attack on the Lusitania is an example)
Casualties of Modern Weaponry
18
VIII.
1.
Tactics of sending masses of men toward enemy didn’t work against modern weapons  “mass” style of
fighting championed by the early 19th c. military strategist von Clausewitz (On War)
2.
Britain suffered 57,540 casualties on the first day of the Battle of the Somme
3.
Total casualties for WWI exceeded 21 million; 10 million died, of which more than 6 million were French, Russian,
German, and Austrian
The Reality of Soldiers’ Lives
A.
Patriotic Fervor
1.
B.
Attitudes Change
1.
C.
XII.
The Race to the Sea
When the Great War began, generals on both sides believed charges of massed soldiers would lead to quick victories  modern
weapons completely destroyed this tactic; to escape the constant barrage of bullets and shells, soldiers “dug in”
B.
XI.
No crowds or heroes’ welcome after the war  the reality of the scale of death led most people to seek
escape from thoughts of the war
Trench Warfare
A.
X.
Soldiers changed Europeans’ optimistic fervor through letters about the horrors of war
The Return Home
1.
IX.
Many Europeans looked forward to war at the start  nationalism/patriotism; many thought the “boys would
be back by Christmas” expressing a commonly held belief that the war would be short
2.
475 miles of trenches were dug across northern France (from North Sea to Swiss border)
3.
British troops used over 10 million shovels during the war (in 1914, only had allocated 2,500 shovels)
Life in the Trenches
Trench warfare = mass charges by infantrymen preceded by long artillery bombardments
1.
Charging ‘over the top’, crossing ‘no man’s land’ to reach enemy trenches
2.
Dangerous (snipers, artillery, later airplane attacks), boring (stir crazy), terrifying (caused shell-shock in some)
3.
Horrible living conditions  dugouts, trench foot, rats, flies
Effect of the War on the Home Front
A.
B.
C.
Mobilizing for Total War
1.
Civilians back home made huge sacrifices
2.
Governments controlled industries, rationing, resorted to conscription
New Jobs for Women
1.
Worked in jobs traditionally held only by men, who were at the front
2.
Number in paid employment rose by over one million
3.
Worked in paramilitary organizations to support soldiers at front
Women’s Wages
19
D.
VIII.
1.
Paid less than men for same work
2.
Industrial and civil work provided better pay and working hours than traditional jobs
Women’s Changing Role
1.
Women discovered the benefits of financial autonomy and greater mobility
2.
Some refused to return to domestic service
3.
Women won right to vote throughout Europe; growth of feminism (expectation for change in their position and
status in society)
The Paris Peace Conference [See 6.04]

The victorious allies met in Paris on January 18, 1919, to begin negotiating terms of peace
A.
Peace of Justice
1.
Leaders of Allied and Central Powers met at the Palace of Versailles
2.
Directed by the Big Four:
British Prime Minister David Lloyd George; French President Georges Clemenceau; Italian President Vittorio
Orlando; and, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson
3.
B.
C.
D.
President Wilson’s 14 Points supported self-determination for all nations and a just peace
Peace of Vengeance
1.
Italy and Britain wanted territory
2.
France wanted to punish Germany
3.
Italy and United States left, leaving peace settlement to France and Britain
Treaty of Versailles with Germany
1.
France and Britain created a severe treaty that punished Germany
2.
Germany had to:
a.
Return Alsace-Lorraine region to France
b.
Keep area near France, called Rhineland, demilitarized
c.
Lost all overseas colonies...mandate system
d.
No navy allowed; army could not have more than 100K soldiers
e.
Pay war reparations of 32 billion dollars
f.
Agree to infamous ‘war guilt clause’
The New Europe [See 6.05]
1.
Treaties similar to Germany’s signed with other Central Powers
2.
Many countries experienced a change in their borders...Italy, Greece, Bulgaria, Romania, Belgium, Denmark,
and France
3.
Bulgaria, Austria-Hungary, Germany, and Russia lost territory
4.
Yugoslavia
Many new countries were created...Poland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Finland, Czechoslovakia, Turkey, and
REVOLUTION IN RUSSIA (see 5.24)
20
Overview:
Like the American and French revolutions, the Russian Revolution began with a small incident—bread riots in the capital. But it
soon mushroomed into one of the most important events of the century. Leaders like Lenin were determined to create a new society
based on the ideas of Karl Marx. Certain that capitalism was destined to fall, they harbored ambitions to spread communist revolution
around the world.
The worldwide revolution that Marx had predicted never took place. But Lenin and his successors would transform tsarist Russia
into the communist Soviet Union. For almost 75 years, Soviet experiments in one-party politics and a state-run economy would serve as a
model for revolutionaries from China to Cuba.
I.
Revolution of 1905
A.
Russia began to industrialize on a wide scale in the 1890s under the leadership of Sergei Witte...by 1900, world’s 4 th largest
producer of steel
B.
Socialist thought and socialist parties developed alongside the emerging factory system...repressive government forced
these workers’ parties underground
C.
Defeat in war leads to domestic unrest
D.
II.
1.
2.
Russian territorial expansion in northern Korea led to a confrontation with Japan... Russo-Japanese War
Russians decisively defeated in a series of naval battles...humiliating loss for a “great power”
3.
A massive food shortage in Russian cities led to a peaceful workers’ protest in February that was staged at the
tsar’s Winter Palace in St. Petersburg
4.
5.
Tsar’s troops opened fire...”Bloody Sunday”...hundreds killed
After a general strike, the government capitulated  czar Nicholas II granted civil liberties and created a
legislative body...the Duma
Constitutional monarchy would be short lived...after the assassination of his chief adviser, the tsar resorted back to
autocracy
The Russian Revolution
A.
B.
C.
The Impact of the Great War
1. Russia was unprepared both militarily and technologically for the total war of WWI
2. Nicholas II [Romanov...since 1613], alone of all European monarchs, insisted upon taking personal charge of the
armed forces despite his lack of ability and training for such an awesome burden
3. Russian industry was unable to produce the weapons and supplies it needed for its army  suffered incredible losses
 b/w 1914 and 1916 six million casualties  by 1917, the Russian will to fight had vanished
4. Middle class, aristocrats, peasants, soldiers, and workers grew more disenchanted with the government,
exacerbated by the influence of Rasputin
The March Revolution
1.
Series of strikes erupted in Petrograd (formerly St. Petersburg...sounded more ‘Russian’)  led by women
industrial workers  called for “Peace and Bread” and “Down with Autocracy”
2.
Women soon joined by other workers  general strike
3.
A significant number of soldiers joined the workers  members of the Duma (Constitutional Democrats)
established a Provisional Government that urged the tsar to abdicate  he did on March 15
4.
The Provisional Government’s program consisted of 19th century liberalism...primarily a program established by
the middle-class and liberal aristocrats; foolishly, they decided to continue in the war effort
5.
Opposed by the soviets, councils of workers’ and soldiers’ deputies
a.
Represented the more radical interests of the lower classes and were largely composed of socialists of
various kinds
b.
Social Democrats had split in 1903
 Mensheviks...wanted SDs to be a mass electoral socialist party who would cooperate temporarily in
a democracy while working toward the ultimate achievement of a socialist state
 Bolsheviks...led by Lenin, they advocated violent revolution  only means to destroy the capitalist
system; uniquely, he argued an elite “vanguard” of activists must form a small party of well-disciplined
professional revolutionaries to accomplish this task
“April Theses”
1.
Lenin had been in Switzerland when the March Revolution erupted; with the help of the German high
command, he and a group of his followers were sent on a private train to Russia
2.
On April 20, he issued his “April Theses”
a.
Lenin revised Marx by arguing that Russia could directly move into socialism without first have a
proletarian revolution that overthrew the bourgeois capitalists (Russian industrialization?)
b.
The soviets of soldiers, workers, and peasants were groups that the Bolsheviks must gain control
of...they would help them overthrow the Provisional Government
21
c.
d.
III.
Bolsheviks would gain support through promises: end to the war, redistribution of all land to the
peasants, transfer of factories and industries from capitalists to committees of workers
Slogans of Bolshevik program  “Peace, Land, Bread”; “Worker Control of Production”, “All Power
to the Soviets”
The Bolshevik Revolution
A.
B.
C.
D.
Bolsheviks overthrow Provisional Government
1.
Bolsheviks were able to gain a majority in the powerful Petrograd soviet
2.
Lenin and Leon Trotsky organized a Military Revolutionary Committee within the Petrograd soviet to plot the
overthrow of the government
3.
On November 6-7, Bolshevik forces seized the Winter Palace, the seat of the Provisional Government 
collapsed quickly with little bloodshed
Winning the masses
1.
Immediately, the Bolsheviks (renamed the Communists) tried to win mass support asap by fulfilling their
promises:
2.
Lenin declared the land nationalized and turned it over to local rural soviets
3.
Lenin turned over control of the factories to committees of workers
4.
Lenin signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk on March 3, 1918, with Germany  Russians lost eastern Poland, Ukraine,
Finland, and the Baltic provinces
Civil War
1.
Opposition...Lenin and his Communists faced great opposition from groups loyal to the czar, but also from
bourgeois and aristocratic liberals and anti-Lenin socialists like the Mensheviks
2.
In addition, thousands of Allied troops were eventually sent to different parts of Russia in the hope of bringing
Russia back into the war
3.
Showdown between the Red Army (Bolsheviks) and the White Army (anti-Bolshevik) resulted in a victory for the
Reds...how?
a.
Trotsky turned the Red Army into a well-disciplined and formidable fighting force...re-instituted the
draft and even recruited former tsarist officers
b.
Had interior lines of defense and could move its troops easily (see pg 772)
c.
Disunity of anti-Communist forces vs Communists’ single-minded sense of purpose
d.
Bolsheviks implemented “War communism”  nationalization of banks and most industries, the
forcible requisition of grain from peasants, and the centralization of state administration under
Bolshevik control
e.
Bolsheviks implemented “revolutionary terror”  Red secret police known as the Cheka eliminated all
internal enemies (reminiscent of Robespierre’s Reign of Terror)...set stage for Stalinist purges that
reached into the millions! This fact alone is reason enough for many Americans to fear “communism”
f.
Foreign presence helped Bolsheviks appeal to Russian patriotism
Communist victory
1.
By 1921, Communists had succeeded in retaining control of Russia
2.
In the process, Russia was transformed into a bureaucratically centralized state dominated by a single party
3.
With Lenin’s death in 1924, a power struggle would emerge in the Communist Party...see Chapter 26
Chapter 26—The Futile Search for a New Stability: Europe b/w the Wars (1919-1939)
I.
Aftermath of the Great War
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
II.
Americans retreat into isolationism; League of Nations very ineffective  could only resort to economic sanctions
French Policy of Coercion…Germans were unable to pay annual reparations by 1922, so France invaded the Ruhr valley
and were paid ‘in kind’ by operating and using the mines and factories there…many German workers refused to
work…German government starts printing large quantities of paper money to support workers  spiraling inflation
Dawes Plan…international commission that stepped in to help Germany  reduced German reparations, stabilized
Germany’s payments on the basis of its ability to pay, granted Germany a $200 million economic recovery loan
Kellogg-Briand pact…inaugurated in 1928; 63 nations eventually signed it; pledged to “renounce war as an instrument of
national policy”…enforceable???
Suspicion of Soviets…many western European powers suspicious, especially in light of Soviet support of the Comintern,
which agitated for worldwide communist revolutions
Great Depression [See 6.33, 6.34, 6.35]…factors that led to GD included overproduction from WWI, debts from WWI,
European dependence on American loans, too much credit,  wages for factory workers,  in farmers’ earnings due to
overproduction…sparked by collapse of American stock exchange in 1929…led to  in trade,  in tariffs to protect
domestic markets,  in production,  in unemployment (for instance, by 1932, 25% unemployment in GB, 40% in
Germany)…the failure of liberal remedies to solve GD opened the door to more extreme and simplistic/dictatorial
solutions
Retreat from Democracy: Authoritarian and Totalitarian States (See 6.07, 6.28, 6.29, 6.30, 6.31)
A.
B.
Origins  the total warfare of WWI, when gov’ts, even democratic states, exercised virtual control over economic,
political, and personal freedom in order to achieve victory
Aim of Totalitarian regimes  to control not only the economic, political, and social aspects of life, but the intellectual
and cultural as well…regimes expected the active loyalty and commitment of citizens to the regime’s goals…used mass
propaganda techniques and high-speed communications to further their goals
22
C.
D.
III.
Fascist Italy [See 6.28 and 6.07]
A.
B.
C.
D.
IV.
B.
C.
Failure of the Weimar Republic…republican gov’t established at end of Great War…many blamed it for peace of
vengeance that was meted out at the Paris Peace Conference…assailed from all sides, both left (communists) and right
(Nazis)…”The depression paved the way for social discontent, fear, and extremist parties”
Adolf Hitler and Mein Kampf  ideas hammered out during his formative Vienna years…core ideas include racism, antiSemitism, extreme German nationalism, Social Darwinism (nation’s struggle; the fit will flourish), anti-communism, and
Lebensraum
The Rise of the NSDAP (National Socialist German Workers’ Party)/Nazis…Hitler had joined the German Workers’
Party…sought to gain support from the working classes and fellow nationalists…became a mass political movement that
utilized flags, party badges, uniforms (Brown Shirts), newspapers, police force (SA thugs “Storm Troops”)…Hitler able to
garner more support with charismatic oratorical skill…Nazis effectively employed mass propaganda and modern
electioneering tactics
1.
Abortive Beer Hall Putsch in November 1923…coup failed…Hitler jailed for 9 months…writes Mein
Kampf…importantly, Hitler realized that the Nazis could not overthrow the Weimar Republic by force, but would
have to use constitutional means to gain power
2.
Hitler made Chancellor by January 1933…Reichstag fire of Feb 1933 blamed on Communists  Hitler given
emergency powers that suspended the basic rights of all citizens…by Aug 1934, Hitler assumes combined
offices of president, chancellor, and commander of armed forces on death of President Paul Hindenburg 
Nazis dominate Germany…start of Third Reich
3.
Gleichschaltung  coordination of all activities under Nazi control

Mass demonstrations and spectacles (propaganda…Nuremberg rallies; Triumph of the Will)

Economic sphere…factories not nationalized, secret rearmament  helped solve unemployment,
which led to acceptance of Nazis

German Labor Front  single state-controlled union…keep eye on socialist movements

Terror and repression under Heinrich Himmler’s SS

Religion and education brought under Nazi control; many intellectuals flee

Indoctrination of the young through the Hitler Youth/League of German Maidens

Anti-Semitism  Nuremberg Laws and Kristallnacht are examples (see Ch 27 on ‘Jewish problem’)

Women  traditional roles glorified…”Get ahold of pots and pans and broom and you’ll find a
groom!”

Leisure (emphasis on physical activity) promoted and controlled by Nazis  “Strength through Joy”

Censorship  public bonfires to burn dangerous and anti-Nazi works
Soviet Russia [See 6.29, 6.30, 6.31]
A.
B.
C.
D.
VI.
Beginnings…in the early 1920s, in the wake of economic turmoil, political disorder, and the general insecurity and fear
stemming from WWI, Benito Mussolini (‘Il Duce’) and his Black Shirts burst upon the Italian scene with the first fascist
movement in Italy
According to Mussolini, “Fascism is totalitarian, and the Fascist state, the synthesis and unity of all values, interprets,
develops, and gives strength to the whole life of the people.”
Policies…in theory, a parliamentary democracy, in reality a fascist dictatorship led by Mussolini  bogus elections,
assassination of opposition leaders, censorship of press, police state, no freedom of assembly or due process of law, antiFascist parties outlawed, indoctrination of the young (Young Fascists), “women into the home”…Mussolini’s gov’t did
provide discipline and order, put many to work with massive public works’ projects, and “made the trains run on time”;
made peace with RCC in the Lateran Accords
What is Fascism?  authoritarian regime that is not communist…rooted in extreme nationalism; glorified action, violence,
and discipline (blind loyalty to the state); antidemocratic; importance of the individual serving the state; pursued
aggressive foreign expansion; anti-socialist and anti-communist; found allies among the business leaders and wealthy
landowners, as well as the lower middle class
Nazi Germany (See 6.07)
A.
V.
Organization  usually led by a single leader and a single party  fundamentally rejected liberal idea of limited
governments…individual freedom was to be subordinated to the collective will of the masses
Characteristics  led by a dictator, one-party rule, primacy of the state, economic control, secret police (terror and
repression of opposition), censorship, propaganda, indoctrination
Lenin’s New Economic Policy [NEP]…a modified version of the old capitalist system introduced in the Soviet Union by
Lenin in 1921 to revive the economy after the ravages of the civil war and war communism…peasants could sell
produce and keep the profits; small businesses could operate under private ownership
Struggle in Politburo after Lenin’s death  b/w supporters of Leon Trotsky and Joseph Stalin; Stalin as general secretary
able to galvanize mass support; Trotsky fled to Mexico…assassinated in 1940
Stalin’s Five-Year Plan  overarching goal was the transformation of Russia from an agricultural country into an industrial
state…include collectivization of agriculture and the elimination of the kulak class of farmers (had prospered under
Lenin’s NEP)
“Man of Steel”  Stalin kept a firm grip over the Soviet bureaucracy through a series of purges
Spain under General Franco [see 6.06]…Franco had led an authoritarian/conservative revolt (1936) against the republican
government…actively supported by Germany and Italy…Hitler wanted to test his new weapons  the bombing of the city of
23
Guernica, which had no military value resulted in the deaths of 1600 civilians, and led Pablo Picasso to paint his massive
painting Guernica, one of the masterpieces of the 20th c.
VII.
Expansionist Mass Culture and Mass Leisure…broadcasting corporations established (often state-owned, like the British BBC) 
mass radio; movies also became popular during this time…Hitler effectively used both media to further his aims
VIII.
Cultural and Intellectual Trends…a sense of despair and disillusionment dominated (See 6.51, 6.52)
A.
B.
I.
Oswald Spengler  in his The Decline of the West, this German historian prophesied the collapse of western civilization
Art/Architecture/Music/Literature [see http://artchive.com/ftp_site.htm for Dadaist/Surrealist paintings]

Dadaism…artistic movement that glorified the purposelessness of life…Tristan Tzara, Hannah Hoch

Surrealism…artistic movement influenced by Freud’s theory of the unconscious…Salvador Dali

Functionalism…’school’ of architecture that sought to have “form follow function”…Louis Sullivan, Frank Lloyd
Wright, Walter Gropius

Atonal Music…Arnold Schonberg

“Stream of consciousness”  James Joyce, Virginia Woolf, William Faulkner
Chapter 27—The Deepening of the European Crisis: World War II (1939-1945)
(See 6.08, 6.09, 6.10, 6.11, 6.13, and 6.14)
Prelude to War (1933-1939)
 Only twenty years after the ‘war to end all wars’, Europe plunged back into the nightmare of total war. The efforts of collective
security—the League of Nations, attempts at disarmament, pacts and treaties—all proved meaningless in view of the growth of
Nazi Germany.
A.
B.
C.
II.
The Role of Hitler...Lebensraum...believed a nation’s power depended upon the amount and kind of land it
occupied...Germany needed more land to support a larger population and be a great power  ultimate prize is Russia
The “Diplomatic Revolution” (1933-1936) [See map pg 819]...violated several provisions of the Treaty of Versailles...France
and England did not want war and most likely also felt the peace had been too harsh; also, some British statesmen
believed the Nazis were bulwark against Soviet communism appeasement...diplomatic victories for Hitler included
German military rearmament (creation of the Luftwaffe and military draft), Anglo-German Naval Pact (German navy
could be 35% of Brits), sent troops into the demilitarized Rhineland with no repercussions
The Path to War (1937-1939)
1.
Hitler annexed Austria (the Anschluss) in Mar 1938, which violated T of Vers...Hitler demanded Sudetenland (NW
Czech)  ‘awarded’ this at the Munich Conference  contrary to Chamberlain’s views, “peace for our time”
had not been achieved...by Mar 1939, Germany occupied all of Czechoslovakia...Hitler then demanded return
of Danzig...signed Non-Aggression Pact with Soviet Union in Aug 1939 (wouldn’t fight each other and would
divide Poland between them)...invaded Poland in Sept 1939
2.
France and GB had vowed to declare war on Germany if Polish invasion  WWII
The Course of World War II [see maps, pages 824 and 825]
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Victory and Stalemate...Nazis utilized Blitzkrieg style of warfare  send in Panzer divisions, supported by Luftwaffe strikes,
which would be followed up with regular infantry units to hold the newly conquered territory...France had built up
fortifications along the Maginot Line...after stunning and swift victories over Poland, Denmark, Norway, Belgium, and
Netherlands, the Germans invaded France through Luxembourg and the Ardennes forest...by June 1940, the French
surrendered (same railroad car as the one the Germans had signed the armistice in WWI...great personal victory for
Hitler) but 330,000 British soldiers saved at the “miracle of Dunkirk”
Vichy Regime set up in France  part of France not occupied by the Germans; authoritarian regime under Henri Petain
(Nazi ‘puppet’ state); Free French movement led by Charles de Gaulle (exile government stationed in England)
After Hitler’s failure at the Battle of Britain (“The Blitz”  bombing of civilians  ‘just war’?), he briefly turned to the Med
Sea, but then quickly focused on his long-sought invasion of Russia (Hitler obviously had not learned from Charles XII and
Napoleon!); to invade Russia, he obviously broke the non-aggression pact  Germans stalled in the winter of 1941-1942
b/c of an early winter and unexpected Soviet resistance
USA declares war on Japan in Dec 1941 (after Pearl Harbor; before this time had been supplying the Allies through the
Lend-Lease Act); Hitler declares war on USA (Axis Powers = Germany, Japan, and Italy)
The Turning Point of the War (1942-1943)  from 1939-1941, Axis Victories...things start to change...
1.
North Africa  British forces stopped the “Desert Fox”, Erwin Rommel, at El Alamein in the summer of 1942 and
then forced them back across the desert; in Nov 1942, British and American forces invaded French N. Africa
and forced the German and Italian troops to surrender by May 1943 (led by British general Montgomery and
the American generals Eisenhower and Patton)
2.
North Atlantic  Allied use of the convoy system, long-range aircraft patrols, quick-response anti-submarine
warships, and improved radar (sonar too) made the German U-boats increasingly vulnerable and minimized
the amount of supplies torpedoed by the Germans
24
3.
4.
Eastern Front  German surrender at Stalingrad has been called the ‘turning point of the war’  300,000
Germans surrendered; by Feb 1943, German forces in the Soviet union were back to their positions of June 1942
Asia  US success in 1942 in the Asian theater at the Battles of the Coral Sea, Midway Island, and the Solomon
islands
5.
Even though the tide had turned against the Axis powers, it would take a long time to achieve the Allied goal of ‘unconditional surrender’ of
the 3 Axis power…did such a stance unnecessarily prolong the war?
F.
III.
The Nazi New Order
A.
B.
IV.
V.
The Last Years of the War
1.
Battle of Kursk (July 1943)  greatest tank battle of WWII  German forces defeated by the Soviets
(demonstrates their industrial war capacity); Soviets then lifted the siege of Leningrad and moved into the Baltic
states; entered Berlin in April 1945
2.
Invasion of Italy (Sept 1943)  fell to Allied forces on June 4, 1944, two days before...
3.
Operation Overlord (June 6, 1944)  nicknamed D-Day, this was history’s greatest naval invasion  150,000+
American, British, and Canadian soldiers stormed the Normandy beaches in northern France w/in 3 months,
they had landed 2 million soldiers and 500,000 vehicles that pushed inward and broke through German
defensive lines; liberated Paris in Aug 1944; last German offensive repulsed at the Battle of the Bulge; by March
1945, Allies had crossed the Rhine River and advanced into Germany
4.
Hitler committed suicide on April 30, 1945; Mussolini had been killed on April 28; on May 7, German
commanders surrendered  VE Day
5.
US dropped atomic bombs on Japan in Aug 1945 (why they did so has been the source of much
controversy...please review the video notes); Japan surrendered on Aug 14, 1945  VJ Day
The Holocaust (see map on pg 835)...the Nazis tried to solve the “Jewish problem” through different methods...at first,
emigration...then, the Madagascar Plan...then, the Einsatzgruppen (mobile killing units that created severe morale
problems among soldiers and was perceived to be inefficient)...and then, the Final Solution  death
camps...administrative responsibility for the Final Solution was left to Reinhard Heydrich; Adolf Eichmann was the head of
transportation that trained in Jews from concentration camps all over Europe to the death camps
At the end of the war, Nazi leaders would be tried for “crimes against humanity” (e.g. Nuremberg Trials); escaped Nazis
would be hunted down throughout the world (Simon Wiesenthal helped bring to justice over 1,100 Nazi officials)
The Home Front
A.
The Mobilization of Peoples  like WWI, the total war of WWII led to planned economies, government intervention,
women in the workforce (“Rosie the Riveter”), rationing, propaganda, and imprisonment of its own people (American
internment camps of Japanese-Americans)
B.
The Frontline Civilians: The Bombing of Cities...some leaders believed the public outcry generated by the bombing of
civilian populations would be an effective way to coerce gov’ts into making peace...the Allied bombings of Dresden,
the Nazi bombing of London and Coventry, the dropping of the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki (2 cities that
had been left untouched by incendiary bombing raids so the Japanese could see the full effect of the atom bombs) 
Just War?
The Aftermath of the War: The Emergence of the Cold War [see map page 843]
 The total victory of the Allies in World War II was not followed by a real peace, but by the beginnings of a new conflict known as
the Cold War that dominated European and world politics until the end of the 1980s. The origins of the Cold War stemmed from
the military, political, and ideological differences, especially between the Soviet Union and the United States, that became
apparent at the Allied war conferences held in the last years of the war. Although Allied leaders were mostly preoccupied with
how to end the war, they also were strongly motivated by differing, and often conflicting, visions of postwar Europe.
A.
B.
C.
Wartime Conferences
1.
Tehran Conference (Nov 1943)  Churchill, Stalin, Roosevelt  Allies will invade the continent through France;
will meet up with the Soviets in Germany, which meant the Russians would liberate (and dominate) Eastern
Europe; agreed to a partition of Germany
2.
Yalta Conference (Feb 1945)  approved the Declaration of a Liberated Europe (not followed by Soviets);
approved establishment of the United Nations; Soviets promised to help Americans against Japan; Germany
would be divided up into 4 occupation zones (same for city of Berlin)
3.
Potsdam Conference (July 1945)  contentious conference; major disagreement over free elections in Eastern
Europe (according to Stalin, “a freely elected gov’t in any of these East European countries would be antiSoviet and that we cannot allow”); Truman got word the US had a working atom bomb (Stalin knew this b/c of
spies...Truman tried to flex American strength by using it against Japanese?); Truman committed American
troops to Europe for an indefinite amount of time
The origins of the Cold War  ideological conflict b/w the Soviet Union and the US after WWII  “Iron Curtain”
Immediate Effects of WWII

Devastation and loss of life in Europe and Asia

Horror of the Holocaust

Overthrow of fascism
25
D.

Founding of United Nations

Demilitarization of Germany and Japan

Rise of USA and USSR as superpowers (AGE OF EUROPE HAD ENDED 1492-1945)

Soviet control of Eastern Europe
Long-Term Effects  Cold War, Divided Germany, Formation of NATO and Warsaw Pact military alliances, development
of nuclear capability, rise of nationalism in colonial territories
Chapter 28—Cold War and a New Western World (1945-1970)
I.
The Development of the Cold War
 Even before WWII had ended, the two major Allied powers—the US and the SU—had begun to disagree on the nature of the
postwar European world. Unity had been maintained during the war b/c of the urgent need to defeat the Axis powers,
but once they were defeated, the differences b/w the Americans and the Soviets again surged to the forefront...
A.
II.
Confrontation of the Superpowers
1.
Causes...intense combination for political and military supremacy had long been a feature of Western
civilization...heirs of that European tradition of power politics [in a sense all modern politics originates with
Machiavelli :)]
2.
Mutual distrust...b/c of its need to feel secure on its western border, the SU was not prepared to give up the
advantages it had gained in Eastern Europe from Germany’s defeat...but neither were the Americans willing to
give up the power and prestige the US had gained throughout the world  b/w 1945-1949, a number of events
entangled the two in continual conflict
a. Disagreement over Eastern Europe...US and GB had championed self-determination...Stalin feared if given
free elections, E. European nations would return to traditional anti-Soviet attitudes  as liberators of E.
Europe, the Soviets won out and established pro-Soviet regimes in Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, and Hungary
 only another war could reverse this situation, something the “West” was unwilling to do
b. Greece and the Truman Doctrine...[see 6.27]...Communists and anti-Communist forces clashed in
Greece...fearful of the spread of communism, Truman enunciated the Truman Doctrine  the US would
provide $ to countries that claimed they were threatened by Communist expansion
c. Western Europe and the Marshall Plan [see 6.36]...on the heels of Truman Doctrine came the MP, which
was intended to rebuild prosperity and stability by providing $13 billion for the economic recovery of wartorn Europe...underlying this program was the belief that Communist aggression and expansion fed off
economic turmoil...Soviets perceived the MP as economic imperialism in the sense that the receiving
countries would be indebted to the US
d. The George Kennan Theory of Containment...American fears of Soviet aims led to it not retreating into
isolationism...in 1947, diplomat GK advocated a policy of containment against further aggression by the
Soviets
e. The Troubled City of Berlin and the Airlift...[see 6.20]...Berlin, like Germany, had been partitioned, though it
lay in the Soviet section of Germany...when the Allied sectors of Germany prepared for the creation of a
West German fed. gov’t, the Soviets responded w/ a blockade of West Berlin that allowed neither trucks
nor trains to enter the three western zones of Berlin...no one wanted WWIII... to “break” the blockade,
13,000 tons of supplies were daily flown to Berlin  Soviets lifted the blockade in 1949  Berlin remained a
divided city and a source of contention, especially w/ the creation of the Berlin Wall in 1961
f.
Arms Race...see 6.26...mutual deterrence (or MAD)...ICBM...space race with launching of Sputnik I in 1957
g. The Creation of NATO and the Warsaw Pact...see 6.25
h. The Korean Conflict [see 6.24]
i.
The Cuban Missile Crisis and Détente
j.
U.S. Involvement in Vietnam...”domino theory”... like the war in Afghanistan fought by the Soviets, the
Vietnam war demonstrated that the ‘superpowers’ could be frustrated by ultra-nationalist guerrillas
Recovery and Renewal in Europe
 Within a few years after the defeat of Germany and Italy, economic revival brought renewed growth to European society,
although major differences remained b/w Western and Eastern Europe. Moreover, many Europeans found that they could even
adjust to decolonization
A.
The End of European Colonies...not only did WWII leave Europe in ruins, but it also cost Europe its supremacy in world
affairs ...not a belief in the morality of self-determination but economic necessity brought an end to the imperial powers
of Europe  halted the long-held ascendancy of the Western European nations
1.
2.
Asia [see map on page 855]...Philippines, India, Pakistan, Indonesia, Vietnam
Africa/Middle East [see map on page 857 & 858]...creation of the state of Israel in 1948  Arab/Israeli conflict,
all of the “Middle East”, Algerian crises for the French, Congo
26
3.
B.
The Third World [see map on page 867]...Third World (newly created states that were beset by poverty, and
not “modernized” technologically or industrially, Second World (Soviet Union and its “satellites”), First World
(advanced industrial countries ...Japan and the states of Western Europe and North America)
The Soviet Union: From Stalin to Khrushchev
1.
2.
3.
4.
Spectacular Economic Recovery...WWII devastated the SU...Stalin implements Five-Year Plan of 1946...by 1947,
Russian industrial production at prewar levels...Soviet laborers were expected to produce goods for export w/
little in return for themselves...the incoming capital from abroad could then be used to purchase machinery
and Western technology
Military Buildup and Technological Advance...little focus on the production of consumer goods  heavy
industry grew at a rate three times that of personal consumption
Nikita Khrushchev and Destabilization...w/ Stalin’s death in 1953, Khrushchev emerged as the chief Soviet
policymaker...pursued a policy of destalinization  ended the system of forced labor camps (gulags),
condemned Stalin for his “administrative violence, mass repression, and terror”, certain degree of intellectual
freedom now permitted, reduced powers of secret police (KGB), emphasis more on consumer goods in the
economy, closed some of the Siberian prison camps  K’s Stalin-bashing encouraged a spirit of rebellion in
Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe...crushed revolt in Hungary and thereafter downplayed their
campaign of destalinization... military spending hurt the Soviet economy (though Sputnik I, the first space
satellite, was launched in 1957); this “class clown” was ousted after the Cuban Missile Crisis debacle and
succeeded by Leonid Brezhnev
Eastern Europe: Behind the Iron Curtain [read carefully 6.21 and 6.22]
 At the end of WWII, Soviet military forces had occupied all of Eastern Europe and the Balkans (except for
Greece, Albania, and Yugoslavia). All of the occupied states came to be part of the Soviet sphere of influence
and, after 1945, experienced similar political developments
a.
b.
C.
Tito and Yugoslavia...moved toward the establishment of an independent Communist state in
Yugoslavia based on Marxist-Leninist principles, not on Stalinism, which meant they would pursue a
more decentralized economic and political system in which workers could manage themselves and
local communes could exercise some political power
Stalinized States...instituted Soviet-style five-year plans with an emphasis on heavy industry rather than
consumer goods; began to collectivize agriculture; established institutions of repression  secret
police; BUT COMMUNISM, A FOREIGN ‘PRODUCT’ DID NOT DEVELOP DEEP ROOTS AMONG THE
PEOPLES OF EASTERN EUROPE...revolts seemed to be inspired by the destalinization movement in the
SU until Khrushchev’s forces crushed reforming movements in Poland, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia
Western Europe’s Revival of Democracy and the Economy
 Thanks to the economic aid of the Marshall Plan, the countries of Western Europe recovered relatively rapidly from the
devastation of WWII
1.
France and Charles de Gaulle
a.
b.
2.
The Algerian Crisis and the Fall of the Fourth Republic...France suffered their “Vietnam” in French
Indochina (future country of Vietnam...why didn’t the US learn from this experience???)...led to
troubles for the newly formed Fourth Republic...problems exacerbated with the Algerian Crisis 
paved way for strong presidency of....
Charles DeGaulle and the Fifth Republic...established in 1958...greatly enhanced the power of the
Presidency, who now had the right to choose the prime minister, dissolve parliament, and supervise
both defense and foreign policy...all these measures were meant to restore France to a great
power...consented to Algerian independence, pulled out of NATO (wanted to be independently
strong), detonated their first nuclear bomb in 1960, economic decision making was centralized
(became a major exporter of automobiles and armaments)...overspending led to big deficits...the
series of student inspired revolts in 1968, followed by a general strike of the labor unions, undermined
the French people’s respect for De Gaulle  he resigned from office in 1969 and died w/in a year
West Germany
 As a result of the pressures of the Cold War, the unification of the three western zones into the Federal
Republic of Germany became a reality in 1949
a.
b.
Konrad Adenauer and Rearmament...KA, the leader of the Christian Democratic Union, served as
chancellor from 1949-1963, and became the “founding hero of the West Germany”...sought respect
for WG by cooperating w/ the US and the other Western European nations...sought reconciliation w/
France...rearmed in 1955 and became a member of NATO...Adenauer best remember for the
‘economic miracle’ of West Germany, led by...
Ludwig Erhard (minister of finance) and Economic Recovery...although WG had only 75% of the
population and 52% of the territory of prewar Germany, by 1955 the West German GNP exceeded
that of prewar Germany...to maintain its economic expansion, WG even imported hundreds of
27
c.
3.
thousands of “guest workers” primarily from Italy, Spain, Greece, Turkey, and
Yugoslavia...Adenauer resigned in 1969, and Erhard followed him as chancellor
Denazification...continued war crimes trials; began to make payments to Israel and Holocaust
survivors and their relatives in order to make some restitution for the crimes of the Nazi era
Great Britain and the Welfare State
 the end of WWII left Britain with massive economic problems
a.
b.
D.
Clement Atlee and Economic Nationalization...Atlee’s Labour Party defeated Churchill’s Conservative
Party, promising far-reaching reforms, particularly in the area of social welfare, and in a country with a
tremendous shortage of consumer goods and housing, its platform was quite appealing  created
the British welfare state, which would become the model for most European states after the war [see
6.43]...Atlee’s program included nationalization of the Bank of England, the coal and steel industries,
public transportation, and public utilities such as gas and electricity; also, national medical insurance
plan established
Loss of Superpower Status...cost of the welfare state at home forced the British to reduce expenses
abroad  dismantling of the British Empire and reduction of military aid to such countries as Greece
and Turkey
Western Europe’s Move Toward Unity [see 6.37]
 Military unity was not the only kind pursued after 1945
1.
III.
The Common Market (European Economic Community, or EEC) established in 1957 w/ the Treaty of Rome...it
promoted free trade to its members, established an external tariff, and encouraged cooperation and
standardization; the 1991 Maastricht Treaty created the European Union (EU)  one of its first goals was the
creation of a common currency, the euro
The Emergence of a New Society [read 6.42 and 6.44 carefully]
 During the postwar era, Western society witnessed remarkably rapid change. Computers, television, jet planes, contraceptive
devices, and new surgical techniques all dramatically and quickly altered the pace and nature of human life. The rapid changes
in postwar society, fueled by scientific advances and rapid economic growth, led many to view it as a ‘new society.” In the
1960s, a wave of protests rocked this new society as blacks demanded civil rights, young people marched for an end to the war
in Vietnam and a ban on nuclear weapons, and women argued for equal rights with men
A.
The Structure of European Society
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
B.
Further Urbanization...still more and more people moving from rural to urban areas, which meant that the
number of individuals in agriculture declined  middle classes greatly augmented with new group of
managers and technicians, as large companies and gov’t agencies employed  numbers of white-collar
supervisory and administrative personnel
Rising Incomes and More Leisure Time... in real wages led even the lower classes to participate in “consumer
society”  installment plan; rising wages with shorter working hours created an even greater market for leisure
activities  popular culture becomes commercialized  music, sports, media
The Welfare State...power of the state over the lives of its citizens (too much?)...stated goal of the welfare state
was to make it possible for people to live better and more meaningful lives  underlying belief is that the
society (the state) has a responsibility to care for all its citizens [combat poverty and homelessness, provide
medical services for all, compulsory education, protection of the elderly, workers’ benefits,
pensions,]...expansion of welfare state led to deficit spending
Women in the Postwar Western World...in general, removed from the workforce at the end of the war to
provide jobs for the soldiers returning home  “baby boom”...by the end of the 1950s though, family size began
to decline, largely due to birth control [condoms, and especially a new invention, the “pill”]  women as a
group then experienced fewer “child rearing” years   number of married women in the workforce; still
tended to earn  salaries than men for the same work
Feminism and the Search for Liberation...participation of women in the world wars helped them achieve one of
the major aims of 19th c. women’s movement  suffrage...after the “traditional” late 40s and 50s, there was a
renewed interest in feminism [women’s liberation movement]...inspired in part by Simone de Beauvoir’s The
Second Sex, in which she argued that as a result of male-dominated societies, women had been defined by
their differences from men and consequently received second-class status
The ‘Permissive Society’...yet another term to describe the new society of post-WWII Europe
1.
2.
3.
Sexual Freedom...sex education in schools, decriminalization of homosexuality, birth control pill, ‘public’
appearance of pornography, Playboy
Divorce...new standards were evident in the breakdown of the ‘traditional’ family   in divorce rates and
premarital/extramarital sexual experiences
Drugs...emergence of a drug culture  marijuana, those interested in “mind expansion into the higher levels of
consciousness” LSD
28
C.
Education and Student Revolt
 New attitudes toward sex and the use of drugs were only two manifestations of a growing youth movement in the
1960s that questioned authority and fostered rebellion against an older generation. Spurred on by the Vietnam War and
a growing political consciousness, the youth rebellion became a youth protest movement by the second half of the
1960s
 Why student revolts?  desire for reform w/in universities [classrooms w/ too many students, professors who paid little
attention to their students, authoritarian administrators]; protesting the Vietnam war product of western style
imperialism (revolts spread to Europe); attacked aspects of western society, like rampant materialism, and concern that
they were becoming cogs in the large and impersonal bureaucratic jungles of the modern world; concern about
democratic decision making; some inspired by Herbert Marcuse, who had argued that capitalism had undermined the
dissatisfaction of the oppressed masses by encouraging the consumption of material things
 most famous revolt was 1968 French student revolt  Parisian students demanded a greater voice in the
administration of the university, took over buildings and then expanded the scale of their protests by inviting workers to
support them (general strike followed)...de Gaulle resigned the next year
Chapter 29—The Contemporary Western World (Since 1970)
Overview:
Between 1945 and 1970, Europe not only recovered from the devastating effects of WWII, but also experienced an economic
recovery that seemed nothing less than miraculous to many people. Some historians have even labeled the years from 1950 to 1973 “the
golden age of the European economy.” Economic growth and virtually full employment continued so long that the first postwar recession
in 1973 came as a shock to Western Europe.
By that time, too, after more than two decades of the Cold War, Europeans had become accustomed to a new division of
Europe b/w East and West. A prosperous Western Europe allied to the U.S. stood opposed to a still-struggling Eastern Europe that remained
largely subject to the Soviet Union. The division of Germany symbolized the new order that seemed so well established. And yet, within two
decades, a revolutionary upheaval in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe brought an end to the Cold War and ended the long-standing
division of postwar Europe. Even the Soviet Union ceased to exist as a single nation.
In the midst of the transformation from Cold War to post-Cold War, other changes also shaped a new Western world. New artistic
and intellectual currents, the growth of science and technology, a religious revival, new threats from terrorists, the realization of
environmental problems, the surge of a women’s liberation movement—all these spoke of a vibrant, ever-changing, and yet challenging
new world.
I.
From Cold War to Post-Cold War: Toward a New World Order?
 By the 1970s, American-Soviet relations had entered a new phase known as détente, which was marked by a reduction of
tensions b/w the two superpowers...symbol of detente was the ABM Treaty of 1972, which limited their antiballistic missile systems;
Helsinki Agreements of 1975  recognized the borders in central & eastern Europe that had been established since WWII
(tantamount to recognizing Soviet sphere of influence in Eastern Europe) and committed the signatories to recognize and protect
the human rights of their citizens
II.
A.
Jimmy Carter’s Human Rights and Ronald Reagan’s “Star Wars”...Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 (undertaken to
restore a pro-Soviet regime) hardened relations b/w superpowers... boycotted 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow
(Soviets did the same at the 1984 Summer Olympics in LA) and placed embargo on grain shipments to the USSR...under
Pres. Reagan, a return to harsh rhetoric  called the SU an “evil empire” and began a military buildup that stimulated a
new arms race (focus on cruise missiles and SDI)  US becomes biggest debtor nation
B.
The End of the Cold War
 The accession of Mikhail Gorbachev to power in the SU in 1985 eventually brought about a dramatic end to the Cold
War
1.
The Gorbachev Era
 Gorbachev was willing to rethink many of the fundamental assumptions underlying Soviet foreign policy, and
his “New Thinking”, as it was called, opened the door to a series of stunning changes
a.
INF Treaty of 1987  agreement w/ US to eliminate intermediate-range nuclear weapons
b.
Under G., the SU no longer militarily supported Communist gov’ts that were face w/ internal revolt 
opened the door to the overthrow of Communist regimes [See II below}
2.
The Gulf War Test...provided the first major opportunity for testing the new relationship b/w the Soviets and US in
the post-Cold War era  “New World Order”
Toward a New European Order
A.
Revolution in the Soviet Union [see 6.23]
29
 Khrushchev succeeded by Leonid Brezhnev who followed a “no experimentation” philosophy (reluctant to
reform)...asserted the Brezhnev doctrine the right of the SU to intervene if socialism was threatened in another “socialist
state”  led to the use of Soviet troops in Czechoslovakia in 1968
 Soviet economy had two major problems...1) gov’ts insistence on central planning led to a huge, complex
bureaucracy that discouraged efficiency and reduced productivity [the Soviet system, based on guaranteed
employment and a lack of incentives, bred apathy, complacency, absenteeism, and drunkenness] 2) Agricultural
woes...collective farms lacked incentives, series of droughts, heavy rains, and early frosts left the Soviets dependent on
grain from the West, particularly the US...THERE WAS A GROWING PERCEPTION THAT THE SOVIET SYSTEM WAS ON THE
VERGE OF COLLAPSE
B.
C.
1.
Mikhail Gorbachev: Perestroika and Glasnost...came to power after brief leadership of Yuri Andropov and
Konstantin Chernenko...from the start, he preached the needs for radical reforms...
a.
Perestroika...cornerstone of G’s radical reforms...this “restructuring” called for a reordering of
economic policy  called for the beginning of a market economy w/ limited free enterprise and
some private property
b.
Glasnost...G. understood that the economic sphere was intimately tied to the social and political
spheres...this “openness” allowed for Soviet citizens and officials to discuss openly the strengths and
weaknesses of the SU  Pravda started to print the ‘truth’, banned arts allowed
c.
Other changes under G...two-candidate elections introduced, dissidents like Andrei Sakharov were
released, new Soviet parliament was created (competitive elections), legalization of other political
parties, created a new state presidency (separation of state from Communist party  G. became the
first president of the SU)
2.
Nationalist Movements...USSR contained 92 nationalities and 112 recognized languages...with glasnost, ethnic
tensions resurfaced...ethnic groups call for sovereignty of the republics and independence from the Russianbased rule centered in Moscow [Lithuania declared itself independent in 1990]
3.
The End of the U.S.S.R.  G. started to cooperate closely with the new president of the Russian republic, Boris
Yeltsin...conservative forces in the SU feared its dissolution [army, gov’t, KGB, and military industries] a group
of these rightists arrested G. and try to stage a coup...G. unwillingness to work with the conspirators and the
brave resistance in Moscow of Yeltsin and thousands of Russians who had grown accustomed to their new
liberties caused the coup to disintegrate rapidly
a.
Soviet republics soon moved for complete independence...Gorbachev resigned on Dec. 25, 1991,
and turned over his responsibilities as commander-in-chief to Yeltsin, the president of Russia...SU
“ceased to exist” and was replaced by the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)
b.
Russia, in its transition to a free market economy, was plagued by economic hardship and social
disarray, made worse by a dramatic rise in the activities of organized crime mobs; hardliners on both
sides of the political fence dismayed at Russia’s lost of prestige in world affairs; Yeltsin also criticized for
crushing Chechen resistance (had wanted to secede from Russia and set up their own independent
republic)...succeeded by Vladimir Putin
Collapse of the Communist Order in Eastern Europe
 Discontent always simmered beneath the surface of the Soviet bloc, and after Gorbachev made it clear that his gov’t
would not intervene militarily, the Communist regimes fell quickly in the revolutions of 1989
1.
Lech Walesa’s Solidarity in Poland...labor party that mounted tremendous threat to communist gov’t...Walesa
arrested in 1981, Solidarity outlawed, and Poland was under martial law...by 1988, martial law had not solved
Poland’s serious economic problems  Polish regime allowed free parliamentary elections...in 1990, Walesa
chosen as new president...free market reforms led to severe unemployment and popular discontent...Walesa
defeated by a communist in 1995, but his successor continued Poland’s move toward an increasingly
prosperous free market economy
2.
Vaclav Havel in Czechoslovakia...oppressive Czech gov’t collapsed in 1989 after nationwide protests...the
dissident playwright Vaclav Havel elected president...ethnic tensions flared  Czechs and Slovaks disagreed
over the makeup of the new state  agreed to peaceful division of the country  Czech Republic and
Slovakia
3.
Nicolae Ceausescu and Romania...see 6.23
The Reunification of Germany
 Until 1989, the existence of W. Germany and E. Germany remained the most powerful symbol of a divided post-war
Europe
1.
Communist Disarray...E. Germany, as a faithful Soviet satellite, had nationalized its industry and collectivized its
agriculture...exodus of mostly skilled laborers to West Berlin led to the creation of the Berlin Wall in 1961...Erich
Honecker ruled E. Germany with an iron fist (made use of his secret police, the Stasi)...by Nov 1989, the
Communist gov’t was in complete disarray...
30
2.
D.
Fall of the Berlin Wall...on Nov 9, it opened the entire border with the west  collapse of the Berlin Wall [see
pg 889]...by March 1990, E. Germany had its first free elections, won by the Christian Democrats  supported
reunification with W. Germany  achieved in Oct 1990
The Disintegration of Yugoslavia [see map on pg 892]
 Comprised of six republics [Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Macedonia, Serbia, and Montenegro] and two
autonomous provinces [Kosovo and Vojvodina]
 held together by independent communist, Tito, after WWII; caught up in the reform movements sweeping through
Europe at the end of the 1980s...non-Communist parties elected in Slovenia, Croatia, B-H, and Macedonia in 1990 
clamored for independent government
1.
2.
3.
4.
III.
Serbian Nationalism...Slobodan Milosevic, leader of the Serbian Communist party, rejected separatism;
maintained that these republics could only be independent if new border arrangements were made to
accommodate the Serb minorities in those republics who did not want to live outside the boundaries of a
Greater Serbian state  negotiations failed...Slovenia and Croatia declared their independence  Milosevic
sent in the Yugoslavian army (which he controlled)  captured 1/3 of Croatian territory before cease fire
War in Bosnia...turned guns on B-H by early 1992...by mid-1993, controlled 70% of Bosnian territory...the Serbian
policy of “ethnic cleansing”—killing or forcibly removing Bosnian Muslims from their lands—revived memories of
Nazi atrocities in WWII...European gov’ts failed to take a decisive and forceful stand against the Serbs 
250,000 Bosnians (mostly civilians) were killed, and 2 million others were left homeless, often driven from their
homes by “ethnic cleansing”
Dayton Accords...Air strikes by NATO bombers were launched in retaliation for Serb attacks on civilians and
weakened the Serb military positions...sides met in Dayton, OH in Nov 1995 for negotiations...a formal peace
treaty was signed in Paris in 1914...B-H split into a Serb Republic and B-H Federation [see pg 892]...60K NATO
soldiers kept the peace
War in Kosovo...war erupted b/w ethnic Albanians and Serbs in 1999 as Milosevic pursued a ruthless policy of
ethnic cleansing [against the ethnic Albanians], which forced hundreds of thousands of ethnic Albanians to
flee their homeland
E.
After the Fall...E. European countries would be plagued in the coming years with the following problems  had little or
no experience with democratic systems of government...ethnic divisions, which had been forcibly submerged under
Communist rule, reemerged...rapid conversion to market economies was painful (dubbed “shock therapy”) 
unemployment; in many countries, former Communist officials were able to retain important positions of power or
become the owners of newly “private property”
F.
A Unified Germany...Helmut Kohl elected first chancellor of a unified Germany...euphoria gave way to new problems 
the realization that the revitalization of eastern Germany would take far more $ than was originally thought
G.
Great Britain: Margaret Thatcher and Thatcherism...problems still with N. Ireland (see 6.27)...in 1979, Conservatives
returned to power under Thatcher, who became the first woman to serve as Prime Minister in British history...this “Iron
Lady” pledged to lower taxes, reduce gov’t bureaucracy, limit social welfare, restrict union power, and end inflation
(policies tended to benefit business class); like Ronald Reagan, Thatcher took a hard-line approach toward
communism...success in the Falklands War, when Argentina tried to take over one of Britain’s last colonial
outposts...ousted in 1990...replaced by another conservative, John Major...Labour Party led by Tony Blair assumed
leadership in 1997
H.
Uncertainties in France...after the resignation of De Gaulle, France’s worsening economic situation in the 1970s brought a
shift to the left politically  culminated in the presidency of Socialist Francois Mitterand...policies largely failed to work,
which led to the resurgence of Conservative coalitions  Jacques Chirac elected president in 1995
I.
Italy...politics in the post-WWII era have been plagued by corruption...over 50 gov’ts since WWII
New Directions and New Problems in Western Society
A.
The Women’s Movement [see 6.42]...women need to average 2.1 children to ensure a natural replacement of a
country’s population  in many European countries, the population stopped growing in the 1960s and the trend has
continued since then [Italy has a rate of 1.2, the lowest in the world]...at the same time, the number of women in the
workforce continues to ...women were also entering new employment areas, once the exclusive domain of men  law,
gov’t, business, and education [whole process aided by access to education, something women had clamored for
since the late Middle Ages...remember Christine de Pizan?]...women sought and gained a measure of control over their
own bodies by insisting that they had the right to both contraception and abortion...female professors also tried to
change the curriculum of the universities  field of women’s studies...women were prominent in the anti-nuclear
movement [which recalls a poignant line from Howard’s End, in which Mrs. Wilcox states that if women were in charge
there would be no war...?]...women also played a major role in the ecological movement...women in the West have also
reached out to work with women from the rest of the world in international conferences to change the conditions of
their lives [women from Western and non-Western countries often had different priorities though]
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IV.
B.
Terrorism...acts of terror by those opposed to governments became a frightening aspect of modern Western
society...these terrorist acts garnered considerable media attention, which may have been a catalyst for some terrorist
groups...examples include: the Irish Republican Army (IRA), which seeks to unify Northern Ireland with the Republic of
Ireland...Palestinian terrorists kidnapped and killed 11 Israeli athletes at the Munich Olympic Games in 1972...Pan
American flight 103 from Frankfurt to New York exploded over Lockerbie, Scotland, killing all 259 on board [perpetrated
by two Libyan terrorists]...governments fought back with counterterrorism  calculated policy of direct retaliation
against terrorists
C.
Guest Workers and Immigrants...labor shortages led to reliance on foreign workers  ethnic conflicts (xenophobia)
D.
The Green Movement...beginning in the 1970s, environmentalism became an important item on the European political
agenda...environmental concerns forced the major political parties in Europe to advocate new regulations for the
protection of the environment...the Soviet nuclear power disaster at Chernobyl in 1986 made Europeans even more
aware of potential environmental hazards...ecological awareness led to formation of Green Parties
The World of Western Culture
 Modern art continued to prevail at exhibitions and museums...for the most part, the US dominated the art world, much as it did
the world of popular culture...after 1945, New York became the artistic center of the western world
A.
Recent Trends in Art, Music, and Literature [see http://artchive.com/ftp_site.htm]
1.
Jackson Pollack’s Abstract Impressionism...broke all conventions of form and structure...drip paintings, with their
total abstraction and randomness, were extremely influential with other artists...painted with the canvas laid on
the floor
2.
Andy Warhol’s Pop Art...took images of popular culture and transformed them into works of fine art [Campbell
soup cans, photographs of Marilyn Monroe]...mass produced art [like Durer]...’in the future, everyone will have
their 15 minutes of fame’
B.
The Philosophical Dilemma: Existentialism...major philosophical movement of the past half-century...key philosophers are
Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus...human ”existence precedes essence”...though the world might be absurd, it could
not be absurd unless individuals chose to view it as such  people must take full responsibility for what they are, and this
can only be done through their involvement in life  only through a person’s acts can one determine his or her values 
an ethical system of action [for instance, Sartre was a key player in the anti-nuclear movement in France, and a
powerful voice for Algerian independence]
C.
Revival of Religion...theologians tried to reinterpret traditional Christian teachings with modern existence...revival of
Catholicism after Vatican Council II, which liberalized a number of Catholic practices (for instance, mass said in Latin no
longer required) and under the popular pope, John Paul II
D.
Science and Technology...before WWII, theoretical science and technology were largely separated...pure science was
undertaken by university professors who were far removed from the practical technological concerns of technicians and
engineers...but during WWII, university scientists were recruited to work for their gov’ts and develop new weapons and
practical instruments of war  radar, self-propelled rockets, jet airplanes, the computer (Alan Turing), the atomic
bomb...by 1965, almost ¾ of all scientific research funds in the US came from the gov’t  ”military-industrial complex”
E.
Explosion of Popular Culture
 the history of popular culture in a deep sense is the history of the economic system that supports it, for this system
manufactures, distributes, and sells the images that people consume as popular culture...folk culture is something
people make whereas popular culture is something people buy
1.
2.
3.
4.
V.
Americanization of the World...through movies, music [jazz, blues, r & b, rap, and rock and roll], advertising, and
television [Baywatch phenomenon}
Television and radio...in Europe, these mass entertainment media have largely been controlled by the state
Mass Sports...cheap form of entertainment for the consumer as fans did not have to leave their home to enjoy
athletic competitions...the Olympics now are primarily by American television contracts...these television
contracts are paid for by advertising sponsors, mostly for products to be consumed along with the sport: beer,
soda, snack foods
Politicization of sports...Olympic games and nationalism...World Cup football tournament...”war without
weapons”
Toward a Global Civilization...Canadian media critic and popular philosopher Marshall McLuhan predicted in the 1960s that
advances in mass communications technology, such as satellites and electronics, would eventually lead to a shrinking of the
world, a lessening of cultural distinctions, and a breaking down of cultural barriers, all of which would in time transform the world
into a single “global village”...critics of McLuhan point out that the mass media, created by these technological breakthroughs,
are dominated by an increasingly smaller number of multinational corporations that “colonize the rest of the world” by disrupting
the traditional cultures of less developed countries and inculcate new patterns of behavior as well as new desires and new
dissatisfactions
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