Chapter Summary
Chapter 12: Emotion
What Is Emotion?
LEARNING OBJECTIVE 1 Define emotion and discuss the components, measurement, and
functions of emotion.
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An emotion is an intrapersonal state that occurs in response to an external or internal event
and includes three components: a physiological component, a cognitive component, and a
behavioural component.
To measure emotion, researchers typically use three kinds of information: behavioural
displays of emotion, self-reports of emotion, and physiological reactions.
Emotions serve many functions. They add colour to our lives, give us information about
important events in the environment, stir us to action when necessary, and help us to
coordinate relationships with others.
Theories of Emotion
LEARNING OBJECTIVE 2 Discuss the major theories of emotion, and identify the pathways
through which emotions are experienced according to each theory.
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The conventional common sense explanation of emotion holds that an event triggers an
emotion, which leads to physiological changes, followed by a response to the situation.
In contrast, the James-Lange theory proposes that the emotion we feel results from bodily
and behavioural responses to environmental stimuli, rather than causing those responses.
According to the Cannon-Bard theory, physiological arousal by itself cannot produce
complex emotional experiences. Rather, the perception of an emotionally stirring event
simultaneously sends messages to parts of the brain responsible for the subjective experience
of emotion and physiological arousal.
Schachter and Singer’s two-factor theory holds that an emotional state is a function of both
physiological arousal and cognition.
Building on Schachter and Singer’s two-factor theory, cognitive-mediational theory proposes
that cognitive interpretations, and particularly appraisals, of events are in fact the keys to the
experience of emotions.
The facial-feedback theory of emotion, based on the ideas of Darwin, holds that facial
expressions that occur in response to stimuli provide feedback to the brain that helps to shape
emotional experience.
Evolutionary theorists believe that emotions have been shaped by natural selection and that
certain emotions have been passed down because of their role in the survival of our species.
Emotion How We Develop
LEARNING OBJECTIVE 3 Contrast the cognitive theory of emotional development with the
differential emotions theory.
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According to Lewis’s cognitive theory of emotional development, emotions unfold in infants
as a consequence of neural and cognitive development, with the most significant
development achieved by the age of 3 years.
In contrast, Izard’s differential emotions theory holds that emotions, rather than emerging as
a result of cognitive development, actually help to trigger cognitive development. In this
view, emotions serve stage-related developmental processes.
Emotion What Happens in the Brain?
LEARNING OBJECTIVE 4 Identify the main brain structures that have been associated with
emotion.
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Early researchers Cannon and Bard believed that emotional stimuli are routed by the
thalamus to the cerebral cortex and the hypothalamus, which they considered the emotion
centre of the brain.
Papez noted that the process was more complex and proposed that the cingulate cortex and
the hippocampus are also involved, providing integration functions.
Klüver and Bucy found evidence that the temporal lobes play a role in the processing of
emotional stimuli.
MacLean proposed that a collection of brain areas, which he called the limbic system, is
responsible for primitive brain functions, such as emotion.
Considerable current research has focused on the roles of the amygdala and the cerebral
cortex in the experience of emotion.
What About Positive Emotions?
LEARNING OBJECTIVE 5 Identify some factors that influence whether or not a person is
happy.
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Researchers have tended to focus on negative emotions, in part because of difficulties in
measuring positive emotions.
Identifying what makes people happy can be difficult. Research has shown that good
relationships, employment, goal-directed behaviour, religious belief, and good health are
among the things that can make people happy. In particular, though, temperament and
personality predict happiness.
The Range of Emotional Experience How We Differ
LEARNING OBJECTIVE 6 Identify and discuss the emotional dimensions on which people
may differ.
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Individuals show important differences in emotional intelligence, emotional clarity, attention
to emotions, emotional intensity, and regulation of emotions, and also display patterns of
emotional responsiveness that remain relatively stable across situations.
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Women often report being more emotionally expressive than men and experiencing emotions
more intensely. However, these gender differences are highly influenced by cultural display
rules and may not reflect inherent patterns of emotionality.
Emotionality does not vary greatly from culture to culture, although there may be differences
in display rules and the language of emotionality.
Disorders of Emotion When Things Go Wrong
LEARNING OBJECTIVE 7 Describe how malfunctions in emotional processes are related to
psychological disorders.
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Extremes in the intensity, clarity, attention to, regulation of, and expression of emotion may
contribute to psychological disturbances.
Anxiety disorders, characterized by excessive emotions of fear or worry, include phobias,
generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorder.
Mood disorders include depression, marked by an inescapable sad mood, and mania, a
maladaptive extreme version of happiness. Depression is very common. Research shows that,
as with normal emotions, both cognitive and biological factors contribute to mood disorders.