ACTUAL PROBLEMS OF AVIATION AND AEROSPACE SYSTEMS
Kazan
Daytona Beach
Space activity at the beginning of XXI-st Century
view from inside
G.M.Chernyavskiy
STC for Earth Space monitoring of FSUE , Russia
1. The systemic approach in astronautics
Everyone who has linked his life with astronautics and those who are interested in the future of
the inhabitancy medium and its expansion up to cosmic scales, are troubled about the current
state and development of space activity in the World and in the Native Land of the first artificial
Earth satellite (AES). Outlining this picture, even in the sketch version, is far from a trivial task.
The angle of its consideration and estimation is essential. Launching of the first AES was a leap
in intellectualization of collective human mind - the main power capable of preventing the
destruction of the Terrestrial Civilization. Today astronautics has penetrated both into material
and spiritual side of the Human life.
- I.Kant.
From ancient times the mysteries of space environment have attracted Earthmen. In the thirties
of the last century, owing to scientific research, the ways of penetration into space became
clearer.
The founder of the space flight theory using jet propulsion principles was K.E.Tsiolkovskiy,
whose genius was manifested in the system approach to the problem. K.E.Tsiolkovskiy not only
found the means for space flights, but formulated the aims of these flights as well.
The last 50 years of space age have shown that realization of K.E.Tsiolkovskiy's ideas about
proliferation of terrestrial life forms through the Universe is a matter of distant future. At the
same time, the target function was determined correctly. The space activity is developing just
along this trajectory.
While discussing current problems of astronautics, one should remember that the space activity
represents a super complex problem that demands huge intellectual and material resources,
concentrating efforts in various fields of vital activity on the scales not commensurable with
Terrestrial ones.
The problem complexity stipulates the system approach, whose principles in the astronautics
were laid down by K.E.Tsiolkovskiy's works and implemented at the first AES development.
Methodologically the system approach specificity lies in the fact that it orients a man, who tries
to learn about the objects and phenomena, to their completeness and integrative properties in
space and time. The system approach (SA) is the expression of some specific measure of reality its system nature.
Deep understanding of properties of the material and spiritual world stipulates progressive
differentiation of the branches of knowledge. Simultaneously, penetration into a partial subject,
up to the micro- (nano-) world, puts forward a systemic (integral) vision of the problem,
understanding of determinants of its aims and organization.
"I believe that learning the parts without knowing the whole is as impossible, as learning the
whole without knowing its parts" - Blaise Pascal.
The system approach, together with the computer modeling methodology, represents a unique
means of forming the adequate information about space activity.
The 50-year experience of practical astronautics testifies to the efficiency of space activity
explication by some system of actions directed at producing and designated utilizing of some
class of space-based complex technogenic (man-made) systems, or (SS) under the accepted
terminology.
SS represents an ordered-in-ratios set of space-based (as well as ground-based) technological
means (components) that interact in a certain way. The integrative properties and functions of
this set are directed at reaching the aims related to space exploration.
The feature of space systems consists in the fact, that their basic part - the spacecrafts (artificial
Earth satellites, automatic interplanetary stations (AIS), rovers, space vehicles), as well as the
means of their transportation - operate under non-trivial space environment conditions.
The basic system-forming component on the Earth is the complexes of technological means of
SS users. The ground-based means also provide spacecraft control in flight, preparation and
maintenance of transportation means launching.
Today on the system approach basis the space activity covers the whole set of actions directed at
production, legal protection and using SS in the target designation including: goal statement, the
configuration outline, development and production of subsystems and components, system
operation.
All basic space projects, fulfilled during 50 years, implement complex systems. They are: the
first AES launch, the first manned space flight, manned and automatic Moon missions,
interplanetary flights of AIS. These projects also include numerous SSs designed for utilizing
space environment.
Operational capability attributes of a complex system during its whole life cycle are as follows:
integrity (emergentness), purposefulness, acceptability, continuity, dynamism, compatibility, and
autonomy. The presence of aim is an inherent property of any complex system. SS belongs to the
category of systems for which the aims are formulated by a higher-level system that generates
them.
"It is more important to know "what should be done" than to know "how to do it" (N. Wiener).
The more accurately the aims are formulated and determined, the easier the means of their
achievement can be chosen.
At motivation of space activity's aims the intrinsic mechanisms inherent in Earthmen are of
essential importance, which have been produced for centuries due to natural and anthropogenic
environment. These mechanisms are: creativity, ambitions, competition, inquisitiveness
(aspiration to knowledge), propensity to residence change and to movements (travels) "Investigations of space should grasp imagination" (Carl Sagan).
At the same time, the features immanent to a Man prevent association of society on the global
scale for exploring the space. Therefore the space activity is accomplished at the state level and
has a competitive shade.
A key factor in the space activity is getting the benefit in the military, scientific, economic, and
social sphere by the state. Today ambitions in space activities play a decisive part in the policy of
a country.
The space activity requires considerable investments. Hence the large-scale projects are
implemented within the framework of international cooperation. Successful examples of such
cooperation are: the Russian-American ISS project, American-European cooperation in the field
of space research and Earth remote sensing (ERS), borrowing of technological solutions from
advanced countries by China.
Unfortunately, the monetary approach in Russia resulted in the situation, when the international
cooperation was reduced to participation in the market of space services. Finished goods are
purchased abroad in the form of instruments and aggregates for space technology, rather than the
developments and technologies. This has resulted in failed Russian-European projects on
establishment of a joint satellite navigation system on the GLONASS basis and joint
development of a reusable transportation space vehicle (SV).
Over the fifty years two space activity directions with peculiar aims and means of their
achievement have been formed in the world practice.
The principal direction of space exploration is scientific research, whose aim consists in
acquiring knowledge about the space and the Earth as its integral part. The next direction of
space investigation is utilization of space features and resources directly for terrestrial needs. The
target tasks of global informatization are advanced to the foreground, which suggests the
informational supply of society owing to new information technologies and promising means
including space-based ones.
The direct staying of people in space holds a special place in space activity. The flight of the first
Soviet cosmonaut into space was an epoch-making event and has served as the beginning of this
process. Manned flights into space have become and remain to be a reference point in space
activity successes. These flights have a great social and political value. They make it possible to
solve the tasks of space features research.
Ranging of the contribution of any country into the world space activity represents a
multicriterion problem. One of simplified solution versions consists in a qualitative estimation
with respect to a series of indicators excluding their individual weighting factors. The following
indicators could be chosen: scientific and technological results on basic directions of space
investigations and utilization, on manned programs, as well as on the technological means of
space exploration.
2. Technological means for space exploration
Interrelation between "purposefulness" and "acceptability" system attributes, with a leading part
of the first attribute, is decisive for a complex technological system. For SS the "acceptability"
attribute is substantially determined by technological means' capabilities providing
transportation, as well as direct or indirect stay of a Man in space.
For 50 years of the space age two types of technological means have formed, which differ in
their target designation: spacecrafts (SC) which provide the SSs target tasks in space (artificial
Earth satellites, interplanetary stations, rovers, space vehicles) and transportation means (launch
vehicles, boosting and landing modules, transportation vehicles which provide delivery of
cargoes on the Earth-space, space-Earth and space-space routes).
One of the remarkable features of the first AES is the fact that it initiated the establishment of a
new industrial branch, i.e. space vehicle-building functioning in a system association with rocket
building. Features of this branch consist in developing, manufacturing and operating the
technological means capable of long-term functioning under non-trivial space environment
conditions.
2.1. Space vehicles
The Soviet Union was a founder of the space branch. First-in-the-world-practice samples of
different SCs were produced here performing various functions but on the whole implementing
exactly the system approach.
Today of principal importance for SSs is the ability of real time task solution which, on the
global scale, is provided by an orbital system of several AESs. Not single but regular, permanent
stay of SC constellations on orbit is the dictates of the 21st century. At the 4th International
Conference on Space (Israel, 28-29 January, 2009), one of basic space activity directions was
declared to be formation of satellite constellations for integrated sensing of Terrestrial objects
and phenomena in various ranges of spectrum.
SC along with system functions should also perform a set of service functions providing its
functioning in space. For this purpose SCs are equipped with an onboard power unit, "life
support" system, motion control system, etc. The choice of SC configuration represents a
multicriterion problem solved under the conditions of its parameters correspondence to system
attributes. The principal requirement is increase of value of information processed at the SC at
size-and-mass restrictions (launch means) and limitations in the cost of SC launch and operation.
The SC configuration is determined in particular by the space platform structure and onboard
target complex. Unification of space platforms is conducted for reliability improvement and cost
reduction. Platform's analogue from the available technological reserve serves as a basis for
unification. For the first time unification was implemented in the seventies on the basis of
structural-and-assembly scheme and onboard service systems of the domestic navigation and
communication SC "Tsyklon".
Two trends occur when choosing the mass-and-size characteristics of SC.
The first trend is represented by increase of the mass and size of SC. It is characteristic for AESs
on geostationary and high-altitude orbits, where system's operative characteristics are provided
by a limited membership of an orbital constellation.
The mass of a geostationary AES (GAES) today reaches 6.7 tons (IPStar, TerraStar) and will be
increased up to 8 tons on the Alphabus platform basis, according to experts' forecasts. Power
supply capacity - 18 kW, the lifetime - up to 15 years. The mass of the GPS SC model, whose
launch is planned in 2013, equals to 2.7 tons (the model operated today weighs 2 tons). The
upper limit of SC mass is regulated by system approach's attributes. The latter is in some conflict
with proposals of "Energiya" RSC on producing universal heavy space platforms.
The second trend is characteristic for satellites on mid- and low-altitude orbits. Here, the cluster
SC system is necessary to provide operative SS characteristics. And the small satellites are
reasonable to reduce expenses and risks.
The first-in-the-world-practice low-Earth-orbit (LEO) satellite for personal communication with
the mass of 60 kg was produced in the Soviet Union in the middle of the sixties of the last
century. At present SSs on the small-size AES basis began to appear again. The satellites with
the mass of 100-500 kg are produced in a number of countries including Russia. In 2009 the
system of Rapid Eye ERS satellites (the development of British SSTL and Canadian MDA) was
put into operation. The mass of SC equipped with multispectral instruments, having resolution of
5 m, equals to 175 kg. The developments of micro-, nano- and pico-AES are in progress as well.
The basic designation of micro-, nano- and pico-satellites is performance of scientific and
technological experiments including remote Earth sensing. The small-size satellites are also
purchased by developing countries that aspire to enter the club of space states.
The efficiency of SC is estimated by the relative mass: Мп.н./МКА (Мп.н. is the payload, and МКА
is the SC mass). Today it equals to 0.4 - 0.45.
According to "Euroconsult" data, 307 commercial SCs were manufactured during 1999-2008.
According to company's predictions, the world market of satellites manufacturing for the period
of 2009-2013 is estimated by the figure of $56.6 billion. 469 SCs are supposed to be
manufactured. The annual cost of the global market of SCs of the mass up to 200 kg for the
period of up to 2011 is estimated as $225 million. The quantity of SCs, supplied by companies,
is distributed as follows: "Thales Alenia Space" (43), "Chinese Academy of Space Technology"
(39), EADS Astrium (34), "Space Systems"/"Loral" (25), "European Satellite Navigation" (19).
The number of SCs in space constellations (2008): China - 46, Japan - 46, Russia - 51, Europe 115, USA - 330. 107 SCs were launched in 2008. 26 of them belong to the USA, 20 - to Russia,
12 - to the Peoples' Republic of China, 8 - to Germany. The Russian orbital system concedes the
USA and Europe considerably.
Today the space vehicle building technology in Russia is in stagnation state because of growing
lag in the radio electronics.
In 2007 the Government adopted an important (from the viewpoint of space vehicle-building
modernization, too) Federal Target Program (FTP) . Its implementation demands significant
investments. Today the international cooperation in purchasing instruments and, above all,
borrowing information technologies is the only exit from the present situation for Russia. The
first step in this direction is the agreement on strategic cooperation signed in 2007 between
"Reshetnev ISS" Public Corporation and "Thales Alenia Space" company.
2. 2. Launch vehicles (LV)
At the present stage of space activity the aims of producing launch vehicles are "intermediate"
for SS. At the same time the transportation means represent, simultaneously, the final product in
the space services market, which strengthens their role in space activity even more.
According to consulting company's data, the activity in the world market of space launches,
which lowered during previous years, tends to increase the number of launches since 2005 (2004
- 54 launches, 2005 - 55, 2006 - 66, 2007 - 67, 2008 - 71). A burst of inquiries on LEO satellites
launches is observed to come from ERS and "personal" communication.
It is remarkable that the number of launches has been growing on the background of increasing
AES functioning warranty period, which testifies to the growth of space activity as a whole.
Russia leads in the number of SC launches. The total number of launches accomplished in 2008:
Russia - 26 (18); USA - 15 (14); China - 10 (10); Europe - 6 (2), the number of domestic
launches is in brackets.
Such a ratio in launches of domestic and foreign SCs indicates that the space activity of the USA
and China is directed at internal technological needs, whereas in Europe and Russia the
commercial aspect of launches prevails. However, whereas Europe in close interaction with the
USA is quite active in basic space activity directions, Russia is under threat of turning into .
Nowadays Russia possesses a sufficient stock of launch vehicles (LV). The following LVs are
operated intensively: light-class "Cosmos-3M", "Rokot" and medium-class LVs including
modifications of "Soyuz", "Dnepr", "Proton" and "Proton-M". "Cosmos-3M" and "Rokot" are
conversion LVs. Production of "Cosmos-3M" was terminated. The available ammunition of
"Rokot" LVs allows launches up to the year of 2015.
"Soyuz-2" LV represents a modernization of the well-known BR7А and is actively applied for
launching satellites. Together with the booster unit "Fregat" it provides launching SC into midand high-altitude orbits. LV "Soyuz" is reliably used in the manned program, and NASA
confirmed its intention to use it for delivering astronauts to ISS after termination of "Shuttle".
Modernization of LV ("Soyuz - ST" project) is realized.
LV "Dnepr" is per se RS-20 "Satana". Since 1998 this LV has performed 13 launches of more
than 30 Russian and foreign satellites. Current stock of LVs equals to 150 items.
As managers of believe, the Russian industries will be occupied with orders on launches from
Baikonur, Plesetsk and Kourou (French Guiana) cosmodromes.
Only part of these plans will be obviously carried out. The situation in the world market of space
launches can be characterized as aggressive from the USA, Europe, India and China.
Since 2010 Europe terminates application of Russian launch vehicles "Dnepr" and "Rokot" in
favor of its own light-weight LV "Vega". The experts in Europe consider the project of LV
"Soyuz-ST" launching from the Guiana Space Center as a possible temporary solution before
starting exploitation of their own rocket of average carrying capacity. European experts discuss
the question of modernizing LV Ariane-5, which, in the Ariane-5 MЕ version, can deliver about
12 tons of payload to the geostationary polar orbit (GPO).
India, using РSLV LV, has launched 30 AESs by now, 16 of which are foreign. The LV GLSVMkIII is being built now. Next decade the carriers of new generation with increased carrying
capacity are to enter the market: EELV (USA), HIIB (Japan), (China).
SC development according to the criterion becomes a characteristic feature of world rocket
building for the market of launching services. First-stage solid-fuel boosters and application of
oxygen - hydrogen upper stages (absent in Russia now) begin to spread. The Americans, Chinese
and Japanese follow the way of producing LVs of diameter up to 10 m, whereas Russian LVs are
limited to the size of 4.1 m.
As for the rocket building prospect in Russia, it looks rather controversial. In 1995 the
Government adopted the Decree < span>Angara", which was defined as a highway of domestic
launch means. In 2008 V.V.Putin assigned primary importance to the "Angara" and
"GLONASS" programs in Russian space activity. The "Angara" family includes four types of
LVs (from light- up to heavy-weight classes). LVs are produced on the basis of two unified
rocket modules URM-1 and URМ-2 with supposed future carrying capacity from 1.5 to 24 tons
on LEO. The given program is realized by Khrunichev State Enterprise with wide cooperation.
Flight tests of a light-weight version of LV are planned in 2011.
The northernmost-in-the-world "Plesetsk" cosmodrome was chosen as a site for LV launching.
Simultaneously, "Svobodniy" cosmodrome, located in the southeast of the country, was closed. In
so doing, the idea was declared that all Russian SCs would be launched from domestic territory by
means of LV "Angara". However the geographical position of the cosmodrome does not allow
launches with an existing route of manned flights with inclination of 51º. As for GSО, LV "Proton
- M" is much more advantageous than LV "Angara-5".
According to the experts' opinions, modifications of light-weight "Angara-1.1" LV and mediumweight "Angara-1.2" LV will hardly find consumers because of their low performance
characteristics. Russian Ministry of Defense has already expressed its negative attitude towards
LV "Angara-1.1". The FTP was accepted in 2007 that provides building of "Vostochniy"
cosmodrome.
At the beginning of 2009 concurrently with works on LV "Angara", declared competition and
initiated a sketch designing of a new generation medium-class space rocket complex (SRC) of
increased carrying capacity ("Rus'-M"). The first launch of the new LV is going to be in 2015.
According to the tactical and performance specification (ТPS), the new-generation SRC is
designed for solving the problems in the interests of federal departments of Russia - first of all,
under the program of research and exploration of the near-Earth space and, subsequently, of
celestial bodies by manned vehicles, as well as in the interests of international cooperation and
commercial customers.
Designers claim that at comparable (with LV "Angara-5") carrying capacity (more than 20 tons)
the new-generation SRC is distinguished by the following:





manned means are given the priority in fulfilling the stated tasks;
adaptation to "Vostochniy" cosmodrome that provides launching over the routes of manned
flights and to the geostationary orbit;
the tandem launching scheme and oxygen-hydrogen engines;
strict safety requirements;
the prospect of producing LVs with carrying capacity of 50 and 100 tons.
(One should note that the carrying capacity of "Ares-1" carrier equals to 26 tons, and that of
"Ares-5" carrier, designed for the Moon and Mars missions, is 180 tons).
In 2009 information appeared that the Government is going to fund the production of a new
light-weight-class carrier "Soyuz-1" with launching in 2011, which will provide delivery of
payload of mass up to 4.5 tons to LEO orbits.
Thus, two series of launch vehicles are simultaneously produced in Russia, i.e. "Angara" and
"Soyuz" families. Meanwhile, in the USA the issue is widely discussed of choosing the LV
according to the criterion and manufacturing only one of four types of heavy-weight launch
vehicles for the manned program.
As a consequence we can cite S.B.Ivanov's statement: <<>Angara> rockets is a major trump in
demonstration of a leading space power's position, and further delay in construction of launch
complex threatens to show inefficiency of governmental management of the largest project. The
rocket in a light- and heavy-weight version must be launched in 2011>.
3. Space research
Space investigations with the means located directly in space are the locomotive of the whole
space activity. New knowledge about the Earth acquired from space, knowledge about Space and
Universe enable the Mankind to realize their position in the World and realize their own
responsibility for arrangement of life on the Earth. Exploitative approach towards space activity
and underestimation of conducted research are dangerous on global scale.
Briefly on past events in space research
Even in 1958 the flights of the first satellites gave new information about physical parameters of the Earth
and near-Earth space. The first data on the Moon, Mars, and Venus were obtained during the flights of
Soviet automatic interplanetary stations (AIS) in 1959, 1961 and 1971, respectively. After this, information
from the American АISs began to come.
The boom of space research coincided with the sixties and seventies of the last century, when the "storm" of
the Moon, Mars and Venus began. The Soviet Union alone launched 44 АISs to the Moon, 18 - to Mars, 28
- to Venus. Though less than 50% of launches succeeded, the effectiveness of these missions was rather
high. The obtained information is still being processed.
On March 2, 1972, the interstellar envoy of mankind - American SC "Pioneer-10" - set forth to novel
depths of the Universe. Being today in working condition, this vehicle has left Solar system's boundaries
and is moving now towards the Aldebaran star in the Taurus constellation.
In subsequent years the research SCs of the USA, Russia, and Europe visited various areas of the Solar
system. In the eighties the Soviet Union launched two АISs toward Venus and one to Mars. In 1996 the
Russian research AES "Interball-2" was put into orbit.
Considerable revival in space exploration is observed at the beginning of the 21st century. The scope of
work admires with its immensity. Research SCs of all leading space powers stay in space permanently. The
objects for research are the following: the Earth and near-Earth space; the Sun, the Moon and planets of the
Solar system; astrophysical processes, :
Flights to the Moon and Mars begin to hold a principal position in space research. Other programs are
intensified as well. In January 2006 one of the most fascinating missions in astronautics history began and is
still under way - the interplanetary probe "New Horizons" set forth to flight with the task of studying Pluto
and its satellite Haron:
3.1. The Earth and near-Earth Space
Space means are quite efficient in studies of the Earth and near-Earth Space. Earth remote
sensing (ERS) SCs and techniques are used for these purposes allowing integrated solution of
research and monitoring problems within a wide spectrum of tasks.
Extensive and complex investigations of the Ocean and acquiring the data on terrestrial
gravitational field and geoid have been extensively carried out jointly by the USA and Еuropean
Space Agency (ESA) since the eighties.
SC "Envisat" (ЕSA, USA) has been functioning since 2002 with the task of acquiring the data on
parameters of the atmosphere, surface of continents and oceans, ice cover, as well as for
updating the geoid in the ocean. Satellites GRAE (Germany, USA-2002), Topex-Poseidon,
JASON-1, JASON-2 (USA, France) serve the same purpose. "Jason-2" satellite, launched in
2008, composed a full map of the World Ocean surface for estimating and forecasting the
climate changes and formation of stormy winds. The European Union countries and the USA
start works on designing JASON-3 with launching in 2013.
In 2009 within the framework of the European program "Earth Explorer" GOCE, SMOS,
Cryosat 2 satellites were launched for studying the gravitational field and stationary circulation
of the ocean, salinity of ocean water and soil humidity. GOSE satellite, put into orbit of about
250 km, is equipped with a device capable of recording accelerations of 10-13 g.
Indian satellites "Oceansat" are also functioning with the purpose of monitoring the oceanic
processes.
In the Soviet Union studies in the field of oceanology and geodesy were carried out separately
with SC launches in 1988 and 1965, respectively, and were terminated at the end of the last
century. Investigations in this direction are not carried out in Russia today.
It is planned to start data acquisition on the Earth geoid at the beginning of the next decade with
SC GEO-IK, whose instrument composition does not allow solving the tasks at the level of
foreign analogues. The oceanographic satellite "Меteor-M" No.3 is also supposed to be launched
but only after launching of satellites "Меteor-M" No.1 and No.2.
3.2. Solar system
In performing space investigations of the Solar system, the ambitions regarding the Moon
exploration were declared by the USA, ЕSA, Japan, China, and India. The prime aims of these
investigations are the magnetic and gravitational fields of the Moon, soil probing, estimation of
helium-3 concentration in soil, etc.
To perform the Moon mission NASA launched LRO and LCROSS satellites in June 2009 for
gathering information on providing radiation safety of a man on the Moon and searching for
water resources. The Russian neutron telescope LEND is installed onboard LRO.
In June 2009 Japan successfully completed a 19-month mission of the Japanese lunar probe
intended for mapping, studying of minerals and gravitation level.
In November 2008 Chinese specialists presented a full map of the Moon composed from the
results from АIS "Chane". The second Moon satellite for working-out the technology of landing
"Chane-2" is planned to be launched in 2011. In 2013 "Chane-3" SC is supposed to land on the
Moon. The round-trip lunar rovers are planned for the years of 2017-2020.
In 2008 India put into orbit SC "Chandruayaan-1", which among other tasks is intended for
producing a detailed atlas of the lunar surface. This program is considered to be the least
expensive among all implemented programs of the Moon exploration.
Carrying out Mars missions, the USA accomplishes the program of studying Mars with the help
of landing modules. In May 2008 "Phoenix" probe landed in the northern polar area of Mars. Its
tasks are identification of soil and atmosphere composition, as well as clarifying the possibility
for living organisms to exist there. The stationary vehicle is equipped with means for drilling the
surface, extracting and chemical analysis of soil and ice samples with a microscope. Mars
Exploration Rover mission is proceeding within the framework of which "Spirit" and
"Opportunity" rovers, designed for studying the mineralogical and geological structure of the
Martian soil and searching for traces of water, have been moving on Mars since 2004. Launching
of American (in 2011) and European (in 2016) Martian rovers is planned. These vehicles are
supposed to give an answer to the question, whether methane on Mars has biological or
geological origin.
In Russia, within the framework of Mars exploration, the project on exploring Phobos - Martian
satellite - has been developed since the end of the last century. Repeatedly postponed launch of
АIS "Phobos-grunt" is put off again till 2011...
NASA continues performing the impressive research program of "Saturn - satellites" system
using SC "Cassiny" launched in 1997. During four years the SC has committed 62 revolutions
around Saturn, 43 flybys near Titan and 12 flybys near the other Saturn satellites, observing
unique phenomena occurring in the system under study. About 140000 images have been
transmitted from SC.
European SC Venus Express, revolving around Venus, investigates the ionosphere and
atmosphere of the planet.
In 2005 the USA, performing mission to Мercury, launched SC Messenger toward Mercury. It is
making gravitational maneuvers near the Earth, Venus, and Mercury and transmitting
information about the type of planetary surface and its chemical composition. Messenger is
expected to enter the orbit of Мercury satellite in 2011.
American SCs STEREO-1 and STEREO-2, launched in 2006 for the Sun observation, are moving
around the Sun along the Earth orbit approaching Lagrangian points L4 and L5, respectively. This
will make it possible, beginning with 2011, to observe the whole surface of the Sun and solar
substance ejection into space. The first three-dimensional images of substance ejections from the
solar corona and information on their velocity and trajectory were transmitted. The capabilities of
Russian research SC "Cоronas-Photon" are worse than modest.
3.4. Astrophysical investigations
Within the framework of astrophysical investigations, in March 2009 NASA launched into the
solar orbit with perihelion of 143.9 million km and aphelion of 156.2 million km the space
observatory Kepler, whose scientific task is searching for extra solar planets similar to the Earth.
SC is equipped with the telescope having a mirror with diameter of 1.4 m and a CCD-receiver
that is the largest one for all types of SCs.
In May 2009 ЕSA launched two space observatories "Hershel" and "Planck" (built with
participation of NASA) into the Lagrangian point L2. The onboard powerful IR-telescope Hershel
with the mirror 3.2 m over (the diameter of Hubble telescope mirror is 3 m) is intended, in
particular, for studying formation of galaxies and their evolution at the early stage of the Uni-verse
formation, for studying the areas of stars formation, as well as for investigation of chemi-cal
composition in the atmospheres of comets, planets and their satellites in the Solar system. The SC
Planck is supposed to compose a map of the cosmic background of the Universe.
In Russia since the middle of the nineties the orbital observatories of "Spectr" series have been
being developed (namely, "Spectr-R", "Spectr-UV" and "Spectr-RG"). These objects were
planned to be put into orbit successively with an interval of two years, and the program was
supposed to be finished in 2011. Unfortunately, the program has not still begun.
4. Practical results of space activity
Utilization of space environment with the purpose of ensuring national safety and socialeconomic sphere develolopment began in the USA and the Soviet Union soon after launching of
the first AES. During the first decade considerable advances were achieved in the field of global
informatization. The first satellites and SS were built:






communication AES "Atlas-Score", USA, 1958;
meteorological AES "Тiros-1", USA, 1960;
personal satellite communication system "Strela 1", USSR, 1964;
navigation AES "Transit", USA, 1964;
satellite relay system "Molniya-Orbita", USSR, 1967;
motion control AES (navigation + communication) "Cyclone" (USSR, 1967).
Space exploration is developing dynamically on the basis of new information and progressive
space technologies using first of all the results of the near-Earth space investigation.
Simultaneously, this process is commercialized with lobbying and financial support from the
corresponding states. A series of information SSs is produced and operated for solution of three
basic types of problems: satellite radio communication, coordinate and time maintenance and the
Earth remote sensing.
4.1. Satellite radio communication
, - A.Clark wrote.
Thousands of radio communication satellites are functioning today. Satellite radio
communication in respect of multimedia service leans upon geostationary AES (GAES), which
function in S-, Ku-, Ka-ranges. Here the perspective lies in the digital and high-contrast TV
(HDTV) and in the growth of transmission capacity of radio communication channels due to
increase of the transponders number up to 100. This could be guaranteed by increase of the
onboard power capacity up to 20 kW and increase of the antennae diameter up to 30 m.
In satellite radio communication the United States hold leading positions. Radio communication
satellites are produced in Europe as well as in China and Japan. Despite the failures of the first
GAESs, China produces them to export to Nigeria, Venezuela, Laos, and Pakistan. The orbital
system of Indian SCs consists of 11 communication satellites of the "Insat" system.
Russian radio communication GAESs have a high rating and are popular in the world market.
Along with domestic satellites for the civil and military purposes, Russia at the single-in-abranch enterprise (Open joint-stock company "Reshetnev ISS"), which has kept and develops
production capacities since the Soviet Union times, produces GAESs for Indonesia and Israel.
GAES production for Angola ("Аngosat") is planned.
At the same time, only about 300 out of 5500 onboard retransmitters that operated in 2008 on
geostationary orbits, with the bandwidth of 36 MHz, belong to Russia.
One of the most popular satellite communication directions in the world is VSAT-technologies
designed for departmental and corporate networks. More than 700000 ground terminals VSAT
are operated now. The share of Russia equals to 0.36%.
Along with satellite systems of multimedia service
"Inmarsat" company is a traditional leader in GAES operation at the L-range frequencies.
KVH/Visat Company began to apply GAES with retransmitters in the Ku-range. In 2009 the
satellite mobile communication SC TerraStar-1 (TerraStar Networks Inc. Company) was put into
orbit. It provides communication with mobile subscribers in the S-range and interface with
mobile communication stations in the Ku-range. In the given case the GAES became a strong
competitor to low-flying AES.
Dozens of AESs of SSs "Iridium" and "Globalstar" are functioning on LEO orbits. In 2008 the
number of subscribers of the two latter systems on the global scale reached 650000. About 1000
thousand of these stations belong to Russia.
The system of personal mobile satellite communication on LEO orbits was produced, for the first
time in the world, in Russia in the sixties of the last century. Since the nineties, on the
technological basis of satellites of this system, the design work "Gonets" funded from the state
budget has been carried out. The information characteristics of the last model "Gonets-D1M"
concede to American analogues. As for developers' reasoning on the prospects of functional
association with the "Orbkomm" system, from the commercial point of view they seem to be
unreasonable.
In the eighties of the last century the relay satellite "Altair" was developed in Russia. The basis
of production of the large-size onboard antennas and the discrete technology for SC control was
incorporated in this satellite. The technologies of on-board systems of "Luch" SC are being
applied and improved now in the space vehicle building. But the target application of this
satellite occurred to be unprofitable. However, by unknown reasons the development of "Altair2" satellite has begun.
4.2. Coordinate and time support
Satellite navigation as a form of space activity contributes much to the global informatizaton.
Today the American GPS is the basic means of coordinate and time support (CTS) in military
and civil purposes for users all over the world. Orbital constellation of this system consists of
about 30 AESs and allows users to determine accurate time, the speed of their movement, as well
as the longitude and latitude of location with accuracy up to units of a meter. Technical
characteristics of the system meet international requirements for the satellite navigation means
developed by ICAO and IMО.
The USA President's Instructions of 2004 established the features of development, purchase,
utilization, operation and modernization of GPS and expansible navigation systems developed in
the USA. The basic purposes of CTS systems were stated as follows:




providing continuous access to national means within the framework of national and internal
safety tasks independent of foreign means;
free-of-charge access of civil users to GPS navigation signals and supplementing means;
improvement of ways for prohibiting hostile use of the USA CTS systems;
encouragement of developing the foreign CTS means and their interfaces with US systems.
Russia carries on production of GLONASS system (Global navigation communication system),
which is the most advanced navigation system in the world after GPS. The European satellite
system "Galileo", similar in construction and informational compatible with GPS, has been being
developed since 2003. In China, the satellite system "Beidou" ("Compass") is being developed
on the basis of geostationary and mid-altitude SCs. Some experts believe that China will confine
itself to the regional system, like Japan. In India, the National regional navigation system
composed of 8 SCs (IRNSS) is financed.
The main users of satellite navigation, including the systems with expansible navigation systems,
except military departments, are the following: sea-, air- and ground-based transportation,
search-and-rescue and inventory services. Satellite navigation is used in global, regional and
local networks of geodynamic monitoring of the Earth surface.
GLONASS destiny is remarkable for the Russian space activity.
Manufacturing of navigation satellite systems began in the USA and the Soviet Union in the period
of tough confrontation in the sixties of the last century. It was necessary to support a parity of
nuclear weapon and its maintaining systems. For the same purposes the works on programs of
second-generation global satellite radio navigation systems "Navstar" (GPS) and "Uragan"
GLONASS) were deployed in the seventies. In spite of technological lagging behind the USA in
the field of radio electronics and the beginning of "Perestroika" ("restructuring"), GLONASS as a
strategically important system for the country began functioning in corpore in 1995. It was a
world-wide success of domestic astronautics. The Soviet Union has taken firm positions in the
satellite navigation. However, the unfavorable situation in the country and termination of
GLONASS financing promoted the onset of the system degradation.
Later the acquired experience and satellite navigation technologies enabled to renew works on
GLONASS in accordance with the Federal target program . With the hope of financial support
from ESA it was supposed to establish the joint satellite system together with Europe on the
GLONASS basis, which would in the first place serve the needs of civil users. However, the
joint project failed and ЕSA started independent production of the global satellite navigation
system (GSNS) "Galileo".
In Russia this resulted in depreciation of role and responsibility of the Ministry of Defense in
producing and exploiting GLONASS. However, this department represents one of the most
organized links of the State Machinery (in the USA GPS still remains under the powers of the
Ministry of Defense).
New urge to GLONASS works was given in 2005-2006 by numerous decisions directed at
revival of the orbital system composed of 24 SCs in 2010, with supposed number of 30 SCs in
2011.
The task of actuating GLONASS for civil and military users on the global scale was declared to
be first-priority in the domestic space activity (a dog with GLONASS collar became a
conventional exhibit on the exhibition stands).
Russian Federation Government's Decrees authorized the new edition of FTP "GLONASS".
State support of GLONASS in 2009 equals to 31.5 billion of rubles. This sum looks quite solid
on the background of Russian space budget and testifies to the fact that planned investments to
GLONASS are comparable with US allocations for the space segment of GPS.
However, the question arises on expediency of restoration of GLONASS orbital system with its
former navigation tasks and expediency of considerable financial investments for these purposes
in changed conditions and after a 15-year break.
There are no alternatives to satellite navigation in the military sphere. At the same time, after
termination of the "cold" war the emphasis in military doctrine on the global scale has changed.
Under the modern situation, GLONASS seems to be capable of supplying the armed forces with
the necessary information at the given level of efficiency provided that it is transformed into the
regional system, similar to Japan, India, and China. This will enable to reduce the number of SCs
in the orbital constellation and begin the full-scale operation of the system in short terms.
As for the civil sphere of GLONASS application, the expected economic benefit from the
program realization by 2011 at a rate of 120 billion rubles according to the FTP "GLONASS-11"
seems unreasonable for some reasons.
Today the world market of navigation services is actually monopolized by the USA. Unlike
GLONASS, the GPS system has been already functioning for decades and has become an
exclusive system of granting free-of-charge services to the broad circle of users all over the
world. GPS-technologies act as a standard for the satellite navigation instruments (SNI) of mass
application. They form both the industry and a circle of users. Today the domestic industry is not
ready to compete with foreign manufacturers.
Joint exploiting of GPS and GLONASS can obviously have only a political value and find
application in the Russian market. But the Russian satellite navigation market is rather limited,
and its expansion is restrained by the social and economic situation. Attempts of introducing
GLONASS technologies in Krasnoyarsk region and Saratov district can serve as examples in this
respect. The example with Odintsovo district of Moscow region can be of interest, where the
"Space Sport Palace" is being built, funded by GLONASS program. Some effect can be expected
only due to Government lobbying.
In 2008 Chamber of Accounts in their report put under doubt the commercial part of domestic
satellite navigation. It was noted that GLONASS to a high degree of probability would be unable
to compete with American GPS.
Not to transform GLONASS into the next "black hole" in Russian economy, the investments into it
should meet the modern realities. To ascribe the coordinate and time support technologies to
innovational ones, one should instead of duplicating GLONASS satellites make the system
decisions and reach a new quality in ensuring the vital activity of mobile objects in all Terrestrial
media. By the way, investigations in this direction are carried out in the USA.
4.3. Earth remote sensing
The Earth remote sensing (ERS) from space provides a unique opportunity for acquiring the data
about terrestrial objects and phenomena on the global scale with a high spatial and temporal
resolution. Space surveys form the data on physical, chemical, biological, and geometrical
characteristics of observation objects in various terrestrial media. SCs are equipped with
multispectral instruments for active and passive sensing of detailed, medium and crude
resolution. Investigations in the field of Earth science and near space exploration are carried out
by ERS techniques and means. ERS is one of the basic practical results of space activity. The
spectrum of problems solved with ERS is quite broad. ERS is used in hydrometeorology, for
diagnostics of terrestrial objects and phenomena, in the military reconnaissance, geological
prospecting, ...
The orbital ERS system will include up to 130 SCs by 2010, including about 20 SCs belonging
to developing countries. Recently the number of launches with onboard radars has grown. Only
in 2007 five countries put into orbit 9 satellites with radars.
The program of producing the Global complex of ERS systems GEOSS is formed on the
international scale. About 60 countries and 40 organizations take part in it. The works on ERS
are carried out, as a rule, within the framework of national and regional programs. Leading
positions in the ERS area are held by the USA, France, Germany, Canada, India, China, Israel,
and Japan. Russia, being the Native Land of the first AES, appeared to be in a state of complete
dependence on the foreign data in the ERS area its share in the ERS market equals to less than
1%.
4.3.1. Hydrometeorology. Within the framework of the World Meteorological Organization
(WМО) enclosing 147 countries, the global system of meteorological observations from space
was established. Hydrometeorological satellites are placed on solar-synchronous and
geostationary orbits and on the global scale accomplish observations of the atmosphere, ocean
and land with the parameters corresponding to WMO recommendations. These satellites are also
used for diagnostics of emergency situations and for environmental purposes.
The operative space systems are continuously functioning in the USA, they are: GOES on geostationary
orbits, POES (since 1979) and DMSP (since 1999) - on LEO orbits. GOES systems series functions at
two points of the geostationary orbit (three remain reserved) together with two European Meteosat
satellites, one satellite from China, one satellite from India, and Japanese satellite MTSAT-2 (2006).
Considerable volume of data on land, ocean and atmosphere is generated by satellites on LEO orbits:
"Terra", "Aqua", "Aura" (2004), CALISPSO (2006), and CLOUDSat (2006).
The hydrometeorological programs of the other leading space countries are not commensurable in scale
with American programs, but they are extensive enough.
The meteorological satellite "Metop-1" was actuated in Europe (2006) under the program . Joint decisions
of NOOA and Eumetsat made in 1998 and 2003 are directed at producing the joint polar system (JPS)
composed of NOOA and "Metop-1" SCs.
In 2006 the United States and European Meteorological Agencies signed the agreement, which restricts
with a three-hour delay the access of third-world countries to meteorological observations in the case of
international crises or confrontations.
In Japan the Earth observation from ADEOS GAES were carried out till 2003. New GCOM project is
intended for observation over global changes. This mission is planned to be performed by SCs on solarsynchronous orbits GCOM-W1 (2012) and GCOM C1 (2013).
In China, the satellite meteo- and radiosystem "Fengyun" has been functioning over the country's
territory since 2005. In October 2009 the system of data transmission from the meteorological satellite
"Fengyun-3А" officially started translation to 17 countries of the Asia-Pacific region. Moreover, China
has granted user stations to 14 countries.
Meteorological satellites accomplish some other ERS tasks as well. The Chinese ERS satellite "Yaogan6" was launched in April 2009 with the purpose of meteorological forecasts, soil state monitoring and
tracing the consequences of natural disasters. The Canadian space program is implemented on the basis of
RADARSAT satellites. The second oceanological Indian satellite "Oceansat-2" began functioning in
2009.
In September 2009 in Russia after a long break a meteorological satellite "Meteor-M" was put
into orbit. After 60 satellites were launched during 1964-1994 the last meteorological "Meteor"type SC was put into orbit in 2001 and was operated till 2005. The domestic orbital ERS system
was terminated (the geostationary satellite "Electro" was the only meteorological SC made in the
Soviet Union, and it ceased working a little bit earlier).
A single launching of the "Meteor-M" satellite into orbit is a necessary but insufficient condition
for making contribution into the global system of meteorological observations from space. On its
basis, either the orbital system of identical SCs should be formed, or SC should have a common
format of files with satellites of the other system. Besides, the instruments equipment of
"Meteor-M" satellite concedes to foreign analogues in its characteristics. The infra-red sensing
device of HIRS type is absent onboard this SC. And only a microwave radiometer meets the
modern requirements.
At the same time, in Russia the work has begun on producing the regional system "Arktika"
("Arctic") with communication and ERS satellites on high-elliptical orbits for continuous
meteorological observation over the Arctic polar area and natural resources prospecting. This
project is similar to that developed by the Space Agency of Canada and will hardly be competitive
to it. The project cost is estimated by some tens billions of rubles. It is hard to give it some
technological and economic substantiation, if one excludes a political component.
4.3.2. Earth monitoring from Space. Monitoring of the Earth, performed on the ERS basis,
includes observation, estimation and forecasting of natural resources, state of terrestrial and
water ecosystems, natural and anthropogenic emergency situations. Technological means for
monitoring operate in the following ranges of a radio-frequency spectrum: UV, VIS, IR, NIR,
ТIR, MW with a spatial resolution from low (1 km) up to ultrahigh (< 1 m).
For the purpose of Earth monitoring from space the Canadian space program is implemented on
the basis of radar-tracking SC RADARSAT.
A considerable volume of the Earth monitoring data has been provided since 2008 by the
European orbital system of six mini-satellites RapidEye with multispectral (6 ranges) optical and
electronic instruments having resolution of 5 m and surveying swath width of 77 km. The
calculated productivity of the system is 4.5 million sq. km per day. SC Terra Sar-X (2007) with a
spatial resolution of 16 m, 3 m, 1 m and productivity of 400 thousand sq. km per day serves the
same purposes.
In 2008 China launched optical and electronic ERS satellites HJ-1A and HJ-1В with resolution of
30 m and swath width of 720 km. In 2009 the radar-tracking AES HJ-1С is to join.
In India the ERS satellites of Resourcesat series are used to forecast the weather, prospect for
minerals, monitor the crops, water resources, fishing areas, as well as warn of emergency
situations.
The environment monitoring tasks are carried out as well. The MODIS spectrometer, installed on
the American satellites Terra and Aqua, is used for global studies of aerosols. In 2009 with the
task of measuring CO2 and CH4 concentration in the atmosphere Japan launched into the solarsynchronous orbit Ibuki, which is the first-in-the-world space researcher of a greenhouse effect.
The high- and super-high spatial resolution data from the American satellites Quick Bird, Ikonos,
World View-1 (2007), Geo Eye-1 (2008), and from ERS satellites of France, India, Israel and
Canada are the hottest commodity of the market. These data comprise the basis on which the
technology of complex representation of the four-dimensional spatial information of various
nature in the uniform global medium is developed.
The World View-1 satellite with productivity of 700 thousand sq. km per day has photographed
20 % of Russian territory with resolution of 50 cm.
The optical, electronic and radar satellites with a super-high resolution are applied for the
military purposes. In Germany the system of viewing all-weather reconnaissance SAR Lupe was
put into the operative exploitation. In April 2009 the Indian LV PSLV launched the 300 kg radar
SC RISAT-2 produced with Israel participation for prospecting functions.
In Russia ERS satellites of high- and super-high resolution are launched sporadically. AESs with
optical and electronic instruments "Monitor-E", "Resource-DK" and the photosatellite of
"Cobalt" type were launched in 2005, 2006 and 2008, respectively.
The "Monitor-E" satellite was planned to be used for renewing and developing the Earth
monitoring works carried out at the end of the last century with "Meteor-Priroda" and "ResourceO" satellites. SC orbital tests failed, but turned out to be encouraging. However, for subjective
reasons the further developments of these satellites were terminated and transferred to "TsSKBProgress", where the development of a new optical and electronic SC "Resource-P" began with
launch planned for the next decade. Besides, contrary to the world practice, it is supposed to
combine the monitoring tasks using medium-resolution instruments and acquiring super-high
resolution data on a single satellite.
In 2010 the "Kanopus-V" satellite is planned to be launched. This satellite will have resolution of
about 2 m in one channel and 10 m in four channels with the swath width of 20 km. The
prospects of this project can be estimated allowing for the cluster of Rapid Eye mini-satellites
having ever higher characteristics, which have been widely used since 2008.
5. Manned programs
Manned flights around the Earth and to the Moon at the beginning of the space age were epochmaking events and the evidence of human huge potential capabilities. Manned flights stimulate
the production technology and exploiting of space means. Social and political value of manned
flights into space is undoubted. At the same time their direct contribution into space exploration
at the present stage seems to be ambiguous. For almost 50 years the contribution of manned
flights to space research and exploration appeared to be insignificant as compared to automatic
vehicles.
Today the Man in space acts in two roles, i.e. as a subject (object) of space research and as an
operator. In the first case the preconditions are generated for more successful solution of a space
research problem considering space as a habitat. As for acquiring the data on physical, chemical,
biological parameters of space, the capabilities of cosmonauts are rather limited here. When a man
acts as an operator, his activity is associated with controlling and servicing the technological
means. But in any case the manned flights are one of the types of space activity.
The space research results are reached today owing to application of automatic means together
with manned flights. As for practical space exploration tasks, the monopoly here belongs to the
automated vehicles.
The world space activity in the manned flights area is now mainly concentrated around the
international space station (ISS).
ISS is operated jointly by the USA and Russia. Its vital activity is provided by American
"Shuttle" and Russian "Soyuz" vehicles.
The ESA module "Columbus" is also functioning as a part of ISS. The first automatic
transportation vehicle ATV flew to ISS in 2008. The Japanese module Kibo is used, where the
Japanese cosmonaut operates. In September 2009 the first flight of the Japanese automatic cargo
transportation vehicle HTV to ISS is planned.
China having become the third country in the world that possesses technologies for manned
space flights, acts independently. Chinese specialists started producing the automatic space
station the role of which is assigned to the Tiangong-1 module weighting 8.5 tons, which is
supposed to be launched in 2010. The Tiangong-1 module is structurally similar to the ATV
vehicle.
During the station functioning, the training of cosmonauts from a number of states and scientific
experiments were carried out onboard. For the first time in the world the cosmonauts performed
servicing and repair of the unique technical device - the "Hubble" telescope. This work seems to be
the only significant result of ISS.
Cosmonaut Georgiy Grechko comments the present state of ISS exploitation as follows: .
For many years the ISS has regularly "eaten" the lion's share of Russian space budget not raising
the scientific and technological potential of the country and preventing the serious space
investigation projects. The USA and Russia adhere to different positions regarding the further
destiny of ISS and prospects of Man staying on near-Earth orbits.
In 2004 the USA President has proclaimed the program for American astronautics for the nearest
20-30 years, the basic goal of which appeared to be construction of the permanent base on the
Moon and subsequent manned expeditions to Mars. Initially the first flight to the Moon in the
framework of Constellation program was to happen in 2020 and Mars flight - in 2030.
Space complex composed of space vehicle "Orion" and LV "Ares-1" was supposed to start to
deliver astronauts to ISS in 2014.
Owing to financing deficiency, Ogastin's committee formed in the USA presented in August
2009 recommendations on the national program of manned flights proceeding from the project of
NASA budget of $80 billions till 2021. These recommendations include canceling the program
of "Ares-1" and "Ares-5" LVs and development of a new, more powerful rocket on the basis of
"Space Shuttle" transportation system, or of a new, more powerful heavy-class rocket of the
EELV family. The versions of manned flights around the Moon, to asteroids or to Mars, or the
flights with the Moon landing and preparing astronauts for Mars missions are considered. The
Moon flights are planned to be accomplished in 2025. In any case the Americans have
unequivocally determined the space exploration vector, supposing transcendence of the limits of
near-Earth orbits.
Russian position on the manned program is distinguished by conservatism. It is declarative in
contents, indistinct and inconsistent.
In 2007 the Head of stated: <>Russia is ready to help "the Chinese partners" with their space
program>. Two years later it was declared: . The preliminary terms are stipulated, including the
manned flight to the Moon and construction of the Russian station on the lunar orbit during 2016
- 2026. That is the terms similar to American ones are declared.
By 2015 it is also supposed to accomplish the assembly and provide regular operation of the
Russian segment of ISS and to take a number of measures to provide prolongation of ISS
operation up to 2020. Five modules of various designations are supposed to be introduced into
Russian segment during the same period of time. Moreover, is going to build two on the Earth
orbits for manufacturing unique materials and preparations.
With such statement of the problem it is obvious that in the nearest decade there is no desire in
Russia to start working under the lunar-martian program, and the perspective of prolonged
inefficient expenditure of means on manned flights over near-Earth orbits is obvious.
Transcending the near-Earth orbits and future manned flights in the Solar system seem to be a
call of time. Russia does not need to search a special way into space.
Still nobody in Russia thinks about a super-heavy launch vehicle, but simultaneously two heavyclass launch vehicles are developed.
RSC "Energiya" after four years of trials with the "Clipper" project, started sketch designing of a
promising reusable SV. Russia needs a new vehicle, but only as one of the components of a new
large-scale innovation project.
6. World space activity at the beginning of the 21st century
The world space activity, beginning with the first satellite launch, develops cyclically and, as the
practice testifies, has a positive derivative. The triumphal success of the Soviet astronautics at
dawn of space age stimulated its rapid development in the USA. The race of rocket and nuclear
arms was complemented by reckless competition of two superpowers for reaching the priority in
astronautics.
The boom of charges on space fell on the period of 1963-69. At that time NASA for example
received 5.5 % of the national budget to outstrip the USSR both in space exploration and in
development of military technologies. Now this figure is slightly higher than 0.55.
In the seventies of the last century there appeared a recession in space exploration rates due to
extinction of USA-USSR rivalry in the "Lunar" race, while prolongation of lunar manned
programs demanded huge expenses. The sensations no longer occurred, and the interest to
manned flights began to vanish. This could not but had an effect on the popularity of space
activity on the whole.
One managed to partly reanimate attraction of manned flights in space due to programs of the
Soviet transportation vehicles and long-term manned stations (LMS), as well as to American
reusable spacecraft "Shuttle", despite the absence of appropriate, capacious enough target tasks.
In conditions of continuing the President of the USA has proclaimed rather doubtful program of
"star wars" (strategic defensive initiative - SDI) ostensibly ensuring the national safety. The
Soviet Union in the absence of sufficient material resources accepted the challenge. The works
on reusable "Buran" and LV "Energiya" were deployed. The developments on SDI program
counteraction began, which were stopped with disintegration of the country.
Simultaneously American experts became convinced of unacceptability of implementing
President's initiatives, and the boom around the "star wars" vanished. Later, in 2007 in the report of
American Center of strategic and budgetary assessments (CSBA) it was shown that financial
expenses for deployment of space-based weapon for the purposes of antimissile defense, striking
the ground-, air- and sea-based objects, suppressing enemy's AES and protection from the antisatellite weapon were commensurable with the Moon flights and equaled up to $290 billions on the
kinetic weapon, and up to $130-200 billions on laser systems.
After stagnation of the nineties, the increased activity in all space directions was observed in the
world. For recent decades, significant results in space research and exploration were achieved
except the field of manned flights. Today 40 countries manufacture and launch SCs, and more
than 130 countries use their results.
The positive dynamics of space activity can be judged by its financing as well. According to the
USA Space Foundation data, the cumulative world budget was $180 billion in 2005 and $ 251
billion in 2007. The sources of financing are the state (military and civil) and commercial
budgets. Space activity all over the world develops basically due to investments from state
budgets.
In 2007 the USA public structures invested about $65 billion in space activity, including $45
billion from Pentagon and $17 billion from NASA. In 2006 space budgets of Europe (ЕSA),
China, Japan, and India, according to some sources, amounted respectively to $4.3 billion, $1.5
billion (according to other sources, twice as much is allocated annually), $1.46 billion, and $600
million. According to experts, the Chinese investments are highly underestimated.
The space branch of Russia was financed in 2007 at the rate of $1.32 billion. In 2010 more than
$2.5 billion are to be invested. This corresponds to the first in the world growth rate of
investments.
According to expert judgments, the world market of space services equals to more than $100
billion. The most part of incomes is received by providers, who render services to final users.
The scope of communication, television and other services is at the level of $60 billion. The
market of navigation means and services approaches $20 billion. (According to some experts, the
world market of navigation services will amount $40 billion by 2011). The segment of world
production of commercial satellites equals to about $10 billion.
The segment of space launches according to various sources equals to 2.5-3% of the total space
activity volume. According to FAA data, in 2007 the incomes from space launches equaled to
$1.55 billion and were distributed as follows: USA - $150 million; Russia - $477 million; Europe
- about $840 million.
The share of Russia in space launches segment equals to about 40% and is less than 1% in the
market of space services.
The developing market of space services in India is of interest. The share of India, which
possesses the greatest, after the USA, orbital system of ERS satellites, equals to 18-20% in the
world market of the Earth observation from space. As for space launches, the ISRO management
intends to render launch services at the prices 30-40% lower than market ones.
In the world practice implementation of national goals in space activity is accompanied by
development of program documents at the state level. The programs of leading space states,
including Russia, have much in common in the form and contents, but they also have essential
differences associated with financing volumes, achieved results, with the features of space
exploration policy in one or another country.
The national program of the USA is founded on leadership in investments and available results
in all directions of space activity. In the program the emphasis is made on providing safety and
promotion of space programs commercialization. In this case the safety has wide interpretation
assuming that it can be influenced by space activity both directly and indirectly.
The USA national program can be characterized by president Obama's statement made in March
2009: "Nobody doubts that within the "Space Shuttle" program framework NASA managed to
reach impressive achievements. However, recently in our program there has been sensation of
drifting down the flow", :. "To ensure the power of our space program for a long-term
perspective it is necessary to remember :. the great adventures and discoveries that can be
expected in the future, :. it is necessary to restore a feeling of interest and passion which
accompanied the space program, :. preparation of the mission corresponding to realities of the
21st century will become one of the basic functions :>.
The USA space program is distinguished by:




specific target objectives of space activity;
large scale of scientific investigations of the Earth, planets, and other objects of the Solar
system and deep space using AISs and rovers; it includes one of the most fascinating
missions in the astronautics history, i.e. the flight of the interplanetary probe with the
mission of studying Pluto and its satellite Haron;
ambitiousness of the projects directed at manned flights over extraterrestrial routes,
including the "Constellation" program, and the tendency of evolutionary termination of the
manned program on near-Earth orbits;
implementation of priority space exploration programs including utilization of GPS and
meteorological satellite systems, development of super-high resolution ERS satellites, and
the programs directed at producing climate monitoring systems of new generation for
providing air traffic control.
The all-European space program is distinguished by:




the second rank in financing volumes;
performing works with valuable results in all space activity directions, including the Solar
system investigations, establishment of two unique space observatories "Hershel" and
"Planck" and promotion of ERS technologies;
international cooperation at all levels of participation, and first of all, with the USA;
high incomes in the market of space launches owing to the presence of LV "Ariane-5".
In space activity of Japan the emphasis is made on space utilization with a great share of military
programs. At the same time Japan actively participates in the Moon exploration and the ISS
program.
Space programs of China are based on their national aspiration to world leadership in space and are
distinguished by high rates of realization. China has become the third power in the world, which
mastered technologies of manned space flights. In fact, all space activity directions are being
developed in China, including participation in the Moon exploration, construction of the national
space station, the global positioning system, radio communication and ERS AESs. For the Chinese
program it is typical to borrow the technological solutions from advanced countries with intensive
transition to independent developments and, simultaneously, implementation of space technologies
in developing countries. In the manned program China had efficiently used scientific and
technological developments of the Soviet Union in this area.
The basic features of the Indian space program are:





pragmatism and high profitability;
competition with China;
large scale plans of space research, including exploration of the Moon, Mars, Venus,
asteroids and comets;
worthy place in the market of ERS space services;
aspiration to the market of launching services.
7. Features of the Russian space program
Russia is doomed for space activity by the course of history, its national sovereignty, and rich
inheritance of the Soviet Union.
On the eve of disintegration the Soviet Union together with the USA held leading positions in
space activity, leaving the other advanced powers far behind. Having lost the , the Soviet Union
owing to its mentality has kept a priority in a series of directions determining the astronautics
development. The latter include: studies of space environment properties; the theory of flight and
automatic control of SCs; technologies for cosmonauts transportation and providing their vital
activity; development of robotic systems for exploration of the Moon and Solar system's planets;
engine building; satellite navigation and some radio communication areas.
Revolutionary changes in the social and political structure of the country in 1991 caused
squandering of the national property and resulted in spiritual and material impoverishment of the
country dooming the space activity to degradation and stagnation for many years.
Under these conditions Russia has faced financial deficiency that collapsed the space activity.
The civil space programs financing that was equal to $3.28 billion in 1989, dropped down to
$0.2 billion in 1991 and remained at the level of $0.3-0.5 billion up to 2004.
Searches for foreign investments have begun, to the detriment of national interests in particular.
Some of them turned out to be successful. They are: the ISS and projects, joint development of
radio communication satellites, sale of rocket engines, granting services in the market of
launches, etc. But this could not save the situation because the space activity demands long-term
investments and, by its nature, can not exist without state support. In 2006 the growth of state
investments to space activity was noticed in Russia. In 2007 the budget grew up to $1.34 billion,
and in 2010 it will amount about $3 billion already.
Today according to the expert judgment Russia lags behind the five leading space powers in all
space directions except manned flights and the market of space launches, and the lagging tends
to grow. The country leaders make some attempts to help the space activity of the Native Land
of astronautics out of stagnation.
In 2008 the Russian President ratified . This document designated priorities providing
achievements of major objectives of the space policy:




first - satisfying requirements of national defense and safety, of the social and economic
sphere and science :. by deployment and effective utilization of domestic orbital SC systems;
second - ensuring the guaranteed access and independence of Russian space activity over
the whole spectrum of tasks solved in space, including that achieved by building the
cosmodrome of scientific, social and economic designation inside the country;
third - fulfilling international obligations of the Russian Federation, including those
concerning ISS, eventual deployment of the Russian segment of the station;
fourth - exploration of planets and Solar system's bodies getting fundamental knowledge
The feasibility of the proclaimed policy, as a whole, can be judged by its correlation with
financial resources of the country. As for the priorities, lack of focus on prospects is still
noticeable. Otherwise it is difficult to explain why the manned flights on near-Earth orbits
occurred to be among the privileged and the space research appeared to be in the fourth place. It
is also not clear why the requirements of the international law concerning fulfillment of
international obligations has turned from trivial into priority one for the national space policy.
Sharp increase of governmental investments undoubtedly seems quite important and encouraging
for the space activity development. This factor is necessary, but not sufficient. The appropriate
social environment and organization of this activity is obligatory.
It is known that under complicated economic conditions the Soviet Union managed to
accomplish break-through into space due to political will and mentality.
The feature of social environment of space activity in Russia consists in the fact that, having
stepped on the monetary path, the state put forward the profitability of the space branch.
Promotion of space programs commercialization in the policy of all space powers appears to be
not an aim, but means of its achievement. In Russia, however, commercialization has turned into
an end in itself. Today this policy has been still yielding its results. Being unable to attract
business to achievement of the aims immanent to astronautics, the state directs the means
intended for developing space activity to the space services market rather than to the branch
upgrade. According to the data of Ministry of Economics (March 2009), the domestic spacerocket industry produces annually the goods at the rate of $14800 per one worker. In the
European Union it is $126800, and in the USA - $493500.
It is hard to comment on succession in space activity of Russia and the Soviet Union, since it is
supported neither by appropriate organization, nor by material and intellectual resources. In 2007
S.B. Ivanov recognized that "the Russian space industry, having exhausted Soviet stocks of the
eighties, was not able to make really modern and competitive products. So, one had to buy high
technology production abroad".
In the space branch the equipment deterioration (the amount of facilities whose age exceeds 10
years) equals to 75 %. Its operative renewal requires five times as much funding as in 2007 from
the state budget. The space branch has suffered considerable losses in its staff. The gap between
generations occurred. The average age of the human resources is 50-60 years.
The School of chief designers established by S.P. Korolev has decayed. The status of the chief
designer has been discredited by diluting his rights and duties. People not pertaining to design
works are predominantly appointed to this position. The giants who had been managing the
national space activity for decades were replaced by the dwarfs unable to state the problems and
to make appropriate technological decisions. There are some examples: change of priorities and
head executives of design works on SCs "Electro", "Meteor-M", "Resource- DK", "Monitor-E",
"Canopus-V", "Resource-P", and on "Arktika" project:;
breaking the continuity in domestic military-and-industrial complex: development of "Bulava"
ballistic missile and "Superjet-100" airplane.
In Russia there is also no continuity in distribution of functions between federal authorities in the
space activity area. The administrative reforms resulted in the situation when , unlike the world
practice, has turned simultaneously into a supplier, a customer, and a department responsible for
the space means operation. Even in the parliamentary inquiry addressed to the Russian Prime
Minister and adopted by the State Duma Decree No. 166 111 GD from February 21, 2001, it was
suggested that as one of the measures on restoring the Russian system of meteorological
satellites, the Customer functions should be returned to the Russian Federal Service on
hydrometeorology and environmental monitoring (from a manufacturer to a consumer).
For example, abroad in the ERS area the space agencies (NASA, ЕSA) are responsible for
development and launching of SCs, and the operators (NOAA, USGS, EUMETSAT) accept
satellites and are responsible for the system operation.
The GLONASS program is similar. Whereas in the USA the ground-based segment of GPS
control is functioning under the aegis of the Air Forces, in Russia the role of the Federal
GLONASS network operator is charged to the Open joint-stock company "Navigation and
information systems" which is subordinated to . This is a rare case when a strategically important
national mission is charged to a private company.
The existing scheduling system also prevents the development of space activity. The 2006-2015
FTP does not elaborate on the purposes and tasks for the given time period. Without any system
correlation it only regulates the expenditure of state budget investments for producing some set
of technological means instead of statement of goals and specific tasks, and development of
subordinate plan for development of such means, like it happens to be in developed countries.
Under these conditions any conversation about a of domestic astronautics is reduced only to the
quantitative escalation of the orbital system and formation of a "black hole", where billions of
budgetary rubles will disappear without any account, spent on "introducing" some space activity
results obtained with the help of the out-of-date technology into economy.
8. Conclusions
Russian sacramental question can be answered in its second part.
The extension of anthropogenic activity in space demands large-scale projects which should be
based on scientific sense, romanticism and pragmatism.
In order to provide Russia - Native Land of Astronautics - a worthy place in the world
community in the area of space exploration one should recommend as a manual adopted in 2008
by the President of Russia, but only after updating the priorities and imparting them a realistic
character.
To implement this document it seems necessary:
1. Not to search for a special way for Russia, but find its own niche in the world space
exploration tendencies according to its real capabilities.
2. To increase intensively financing of space activity, including space-rocket branch upgrade.
3. To raise the priority of space research in Russian space policy, the former being a locomotive
of space activity and the guarantee of progress in space technologies.
4. To impart to the manned program the commitment to escaping the limits of near-Earth orbits.
5. To exclude duplication in development of heavy launch vehicles and to start design of a superheavy launch vehicle for escaping the limits of near-Earth orbits.
6. To direct the state budget investments to the projects of promising satellite systems of
environment monitoring for providing vital activity of mobile objects in all Terrestrial media,
having excluded or reduced financing of such unprofitable projects as GLONASS, "Luch",
"Gonets", "Arktika", etc.
7. To introduce the system approach in planning the space activity. The latter should be
accomplished within the framework of the unified Federal Space Program (FSP) with included
FTP "Development of electronic componential base and radio electronics up to 2015". This
FSP should elaborate on the goals and tasks of Russian policy in the space activity area for a
particular time interval and make the development of technological means attribute to them.
8. Technology exchange and joint projects should be put at the top of international cooperation,
rather than purchasing and selling in the market of space services.
9. To find the ways of attracting the private capital to the space activity commercialization.
10. To raise the popularity of space activity having simultaneously excluded the promotion.
11. To exclude the customer-supplier dualism in functions for space production.
12. To strengthen the management with specialists from the field of space research and space
means production; to restore the status of General Designer based by S.P.Korolev.
We hope that the described statements will be taken in consideration in official State Divisions.