James-Lange Theory
The James-Lange theory refers to a hypothesis on the origin and nature of emotions
developed independently by two 19th-century scholars, William James and Carl Lange.
The theory states that within human beings, as a response to experiences in the world, the
autonomic nervous system creates physiological events such as muscular tension, a rise
in heart rate, perspiration, and dryness of the mouth. Emotions, then, are feelings which
come about as a result of these physiological changes, rather than being their cause.
James and Lange arrived at the theory independently. Lange specifically stated that
vasomotor changes are emotions.
James elucidated his concept as:
My theory ... is that the bodily changes follow directly the perception of the exciting
fact, and that our feeling of the same changes as they occur is the emotion. Common
sense says, we lose our fortune, are sorry and weep; we meet a bear, are frightened and
run; we are insulted by a rival, and angry and strike. The hypothesis here to be defended
says that this order of sequence is incorrect ... and that the more rational statement is that
we feel sorry because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble ...
Without the bodily states following on the perception, the latter would be purely
cognitive in form, pale, colorless, destitute of emotional warmth. We might then see the
bear, and judge it best to run, receive the insult and deem it right to strike, but we should
not actually feel afraid or angry.
The notion of causality is a difficult one. The theory has been largely disfavored in
modern times. Some evidence to support it, however, may come from the fact that
sufferers of various psychological challenges such as panic disorders often experience
psycho-emotional trauma after physiological responses arise in the body, responses
which individuals are conditioned to associate with a particular emotional state but which
can, via therapy, be dissociated.
This theory was challenged in the 1920s by psychologists such as Walter Cannon and
Philip Bard, who theorized that physiological changes are caused by emotions
(collectively known as the Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion).
Criticisms
1. The viscera are largely unresponsive and react relatively slowly (i.e. - we 'feel' the
emotion before the physiological changes have occurred.)
2. Cutting nerves from the viscera has no effect on emotions in rats.
3. Visceral responses are the same no matter what reported emotion.
4. Injectingadrenaline/epinephrine (as in released from the adrenal glands during
"normal" emotional state) does not induce the feeling of an emotion.
Cannon-Bard Theory
The Cannon-Bard theory is a psychological theory developed by psychologists Walter
Cannon and Philip Bard, which suggests that people feel emotions first and then act upon
them. These actions include changes in muscular tension, perspiration, etc.
This theory sparked much controversy in cognitive circles due to its suggestion that there
is no mechanism to emotion, and many theorists attempted to provide explanations of
emotion that suggested a mechanism. One such theory is the James-Lange theory of
Emotion, which suggests that one's emotion and reaction to a specific stimulus did not
occur simultaneously. James and Lange believed emotion is the result of one's perception
of their reaction, or "bodily change". Another alternative explanation was provided by
Schachter & Singer's Two factor theory of emotion, in which they posted that emotion is
the cognitive interpretation of a physiological response. For many, this remains the best
formulation of emotion.
Example: I see a spider. I am afraid. I begin to perspire.
The Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion is based on the premise that one reacts to a specific
stimulus and experiences the corresponding emotion simultaneously. Therefore, if one is
afraid of heights and is travelling to the top of a skyscraper, they are likely to experience
the emotion of fear. Subsequently, the perception of this emotion (fear) influences the
person's reaction to the stimulus (heights). Cannon and Bard posited that one is able to
react to a stimulus only after experiencing the related emotion.
Model: STIMULUS (Bear) --> EMOTION (Fear) --> REACTION/RESPONSE (Run Away)
Two Factor Theory of Emotion
The Two Factor Theory of Emotion is a social psychology theory that views emotion as
having two components (factors): physiological arousal and cognition. According to the
theory, cognitions are used to interpret the meaning of physiological arousal in a
particular situation. Because cognitions are influenced by the situation, the theory
predicts that elements of a person's environment can have a significant impact upon their
emotional state, provided that the reasons for any physiological arousal are ambiguous.
The adrenaline study
In 1962 psychologists Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer gave 184 college students
one of two types of injections: adrenaline (also called epinephrine) or a placebo. All
experimental subjects were told that they were given vitamins to test their vision. The
adrenaline injection caused a number of side-effects including increased heart rate,
increased breathing, and increased blood flow to the muscles and brain. The saline
injection had no side effects.
Some subjects were told about the side-effects of the adrenaline while others were misled
and told that it would produce a dull headache and numbness. A third group of subjects
received no information at all.
After the injections the subjects waited in a room with another subject who was actually a
confederate of the experimenter. The confederate behaved one of two ways: playful or
angry.
Subjects who were misled or naive about the injection's side-effects behaved similarly to
the confederate, taking cues from the situation to interpret their arousal level to determine
their emotional state. Subjects who knew what to expect, on the other hand, did not
manifest emotion mirroring the confederate.
The High Bridge Study
Social Psychologists A. Aron and D. Dutton used a natural setting to induce
physiological arousal in their test of the Two Factor Theory of Emotion. In their study, an
attractive female experimenter asked male passersby to complete a brief survey. She
intercepted potential subjects either at the end of a bridge or on the bridge itself. The
footbridge used was long, narrow, and spanned a deep ravine. Following the survey
interview, the experimenter gave the subjects her telephone number in case they had
further questions. The dependent variable in this experiment was the number of telephone
calls received from the subjects after the experience.
The theory predicted that more subjects would call if they were interviewed on the bridge
itself. By being in a state of arousal (due to the bridge height) at the time of the interview,
it was predicted that subjects would misattribute their physiological response as an
attraction to the experimenter. This is exactly what was found. Approximately 60% of the
male subjects telephoned the experimenter if they were interviewed on the bridge while
approximately 30% of the subjects interviewed on the side actually called.