Open or Closed – That is the Question
Diane Harris
University of Manchester
Paper presented at the British Educational Research Association Annual
Conference, University of Warwick, 6-9 September 2006
Abstract
This paper explores teachers’ use of questions with primary school children engaged
in science activities. The research reports the profile of questioning strategies from a
survey of 51 teachers in 102 lessons in Reception, Years 2 and 4: more ‘open’
questions are used with the older groups of children than the reception class children
and in science activities rather than literacy; additionally slightly more person-centred
questions are asked by teachers in science activities than in literacy.
Received wisdom in primary ‘constructivist’ science teaching is that the teacher’s
questioning role in science classes, at least in the elicitation phase, is to discover what
the children already know relevant to the science to be learnt and hence, teachers
should ask open and person-centred questions (e.g. SPACE Project, 1987 to 1990).
In contrast, some educational psychologists, probably on the basis of experience,
believe that four- to seven-year-old children are confused by open questions and
prefer to offer the children choices. Consequently, some psychologists have argued
that children’s cognitive potential can be seriously under-estimated by open
questioning. Indeed, Donaldson (1978) argued that children as young as three-and-ahalf understand the concept of choice and have no problem working with it. She
argues that, by not giving children the clue that a problem involves certain choices,
we are making things unnecessarily difficult for them. Inappropriate use of language
and task rules, therefore, can create a barrier to finding out what children ‘really’
know.
Thus in this research (part of a larger PhD research project funded by the ESRC) we
ask: to what extent do teachers of children (at different ages from 3 to 11 years) use
different questioning strategies, including ‘open/closed’ and ‘person/subject-centred’
questions in science discussions, and with what effect on the quality of children’s
engagement?
The survey involved twenty North West primary schools with observations being
carried out in three year groups (Reception, Year 2 and Year 4) to highlight any
differences in the questioning strategies used by the teachers with the different age
groups. These observations were paired i.e. the same teacher was observed teaching
both science and literacy so that comparisons could be made of any differences in
teaching styles between the elicitation phase of the science activity and the shared text
element of literacy.
These observations generated over four thousand teacher questions which were
categorised according to the type of question - ‘open/closed’ and ‘person/subjectcentred’. The children’s responses were also categorised revealing the varied impacts
of different questioning strategies on classroom discourse and the children’s
engagement with the activity. In addition, the impact of ‘wait-time’ was considered
when the children were unable to answer.
The survey reveals that teachers’ strategy-use conformed to the expected pattern:
more ‘open’ questions are used with the two older groups of children than the
reception class children and in science activities rather than literacy. These results
also suggest that, throughout this entire age range, slightly more person-centred
questions are asked by teachers in science activities rather than in literacy.
Although these data sustain the importance of teacher questioning in any learning
situation, it needs to be the ‘right’ question i.e. one that the child can comprehend.
These findings suggest that the notion of ‘openness’ in questioning needs to be
theorised as ‘distributed’, i.e. that it is a function of the entire context of discourse and
not only of the structure of the ‘question’ as presented by the teacher. It is this
appreciation of context which the younger children appear to find extremely difficult
and so, in many cases, open questions seem unable to scaffold the children’s thinking
which results in the children not making connections with their own and their peers’
ideas. It appears, therefore, that context is decisive in determining whether open and
closed questions are scientifically productive.
Introduction
This survey reports the findings of an empirical survey carried out in twenty North
West Primary schools where I worked with fifty-one teachers and carried out 102
observations – thirty-four in each of the three year groups (Reception, Year 2 and
Year 4). These observations were paired i.e. the same teacher was observed teaching
one science lesson and one non-science lesson (literacy) so that I could compare any
differences in teaching styles between the elicitation phase of the science activity and
the shared text element of literacy. These observations generated 4891 questions
which were then categorised according to the type of question - ‘open/closed’ and
‘person/subject-centred’. The children’s responses were also categorised revealing
the varied impacts of different questioning strategies on classroom discourse and the
children’s engagement with the activity.
In addition, I carried out more detailed case studies and I have selected some short
extracts from these to enrich and expound the survey data.
Open v. Closed Questions; Person-Centred v. Subject-Centred Questions
I teach trainee primary school teachers to teach science and, as part of their course,
they learn about the theories of teaching science. During the summer of 2001, I
decided to update my teaching skills and gain some experience of working with the
new ‘Curriculum Guidance for the Foundation Stage’. I worked as a volunteer in a
private day nursery with three and four-year-old children for two full days each week
for four months. I initially used the strategies I had been teaching to the trainee
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teachers. The majority of science teaching literature, including the ‘Curriculum
Guidance for the Foundation Stage’ and other literature specifically written for the
Foundation Stage, advises the use of open questions for finding out children’s ideas.
Open questions should encourage a child to share his or her thoughts and ideas,
whereas the use of closed questions will only generate short answers and therefore
limit further discussion. Very quickly, however, I discovered that using open-ended
questioning did not necessarily elicit the answers for which I was hoping. I found that
very often the child would appear confused and be unable to answer the question at
all.
This observation appeared to be very significant, although I acknowledge that the
problem may not be related to the type of question at all, so I decided to search for
anyone else having similar experiences. There are various factors which may also be
at work here including the vocabulary and grammar used by the teacher and
understood by the child and the maturity of the child’s language generally so I
expected that I would have to investigate a variety of disciplines in order to come to a
better understanding of my problem.
The Science Processes and Concept Exploration (SPACE) Research of 1987 to 1992
was classroom–based research which explored the ideas that pupils in primary school
(5 to 11-year-olds) already possessed in science and whether, within a normal
classroom situation, the children might be encouraged to modify their ideas following
relevant experiences (Osborne, et al., 1994).
It was the teacher’s role in the ‘elicitation phase’ to discover what the children already
knew by questioning. It was found that pupils from all three age groups do have prior
ideas about most things, although their explanations are not always very scientific.
The study then went on to investigate whether, within a normal primary classroom,
the children could be encouraged during an ‘intervention phase’ to develop their prior
ideas into a more scientific understanding (Russell and Watt, 1990).
The SPACE Research concluded that 5 to11-year-old children did indeed have prior
ideas and that it was possible for teachers to help them develop these ideas into a
more scientifically useful form – a constructivist approach to learning (Osborne, et al.,
1994). The research led to the development of curriculum materials, Nuffield Primary
Science (1993), which conform to the constructivist paradigm and remain very
popular in schools. There are separate schemes for children in Key Stage 1 (5-7
years) and in Key Stage 2 (7-11 years).
The SPACE Research (Russell and Watt, 1990) also recommended that, in order to
encourage the children to share their ideas, teachers should ask open and personcentred questions. More recently, Harlen and Qualter (2004) have identified open and
person-centred questions as giving access to a child’s own feelings, views, ideas and
reasoning and therefore encourage the child to investigate.
The significance of constructivism and productive questioning remains pivotal to
children’s learning of science in primary schools. Trainee teachers across the Primary
Phase, i.e. those who intend to teach Foundation Stage, KS1 and KS2 children, are all
advised to ask their pupils open and person-centred questions in science as put
forward by the SPACE Research. This strategy has been reiterated in one of the
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Association for Science Education’s more recent publications, “Guidelines for
Science in Early Years”, which provides examples of open and person-centred
questions to promote the children’s science skills (Newport Advisory Service, 2002).
The breakthrough came when I delved into the discipline of psychology and
discovered a paper by Springer and Keil (1991, p. 768) which reported that, “...relying
on open-ended interviews, as has been done in Piagetian studies of causality, would
have run the risk of seriously under-representing children’s competencies.” Their
preferred questioning strategy with four to seven-year-olds is to offer the children
choices. Donaldson (1978) reiterates the view that children as young as three-and-ahalf understand the concept of choice and have no problem working with it. She
argues that, by not giving children the clue that a problem involves choices, we are
making things unnecessarily difficult for them. Adult uses of language, therefore, can
create a barrier to finding out what children really know. On the other hand, as the
experiments of Donaldson (1978) and Tizard and Hughes (1984) all attest,
‘meaningful’ context is crucial in providing children with access to tasks. Piaget’s
underestimation of children’s cognitive ability can be partially attributed to his
reliance on verbal interview techniques. How can young children provide answers
which truly represent their ideas if they do not fully understand the question?
The use of language must therefore be considered as it is central to communication in
the classroom – the teacher communicates information through the spoken word and
the children generally demonstrate their understanding through the same medium. It
had been felt by teachers that the children who used scientific vocabulary had a better
understanding of science than those who used everyday language to describe their
ideas. The SPACE Research found that this was not necessarily true because children
could competently explain their understanding of a scientific concept even though
they did not know the appropriate scientific term (Russell and Watt, 1990).
Understanding is therefore far more important than the vocabulary used in the early
stages of learning any new information. Often if a child is introduced to a new
scientific term and does not properly understand its meaning, then the term will be
used inappropriately. In science, therefore, “…the teacher should focus on the
exploration of ideas through relating concepts to existing experiences using language
which is familiar to the learner” (Heywood, 1997, p.48).
The Survey
It was most appropriate to investigate the problem in two stages as it seemed
necessary to explore what questioning strategies are actually used with different ages
of children in science and, for comparison, literacy and then to examine the effects of
these different strategies on the teaching and learning of science in more detail.
An empirical survey was conducted to address the first stage of the problem. Robson
(1999) advises that a survey sample needs to reflect the population to be examined
and therefore schools were selected from inner city, city suburbs and rural locations
throughout the North West. Selecting the sample size also needed careful
consideration because, due to the format of the school day in primary schools
throughout England, the survey size had to be restricted because of the time available
to observe science. Currently literacy and numeracy occupy every morning in school
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and so science is usually taught for only one afternoon each week. There was, of
course, more flexibility in Foundation Stage classes. According to Robson (1999),
however, a sample size of one hundred observations would be appropriate for a smallscale survey and I therefore carried out 102 – thirty-four in each of three year groups
(Reception, Year 2 and Year 4). These observations were paired i.e. I studied the
same teacher teaching one science lesson and one literacy lesson so that I could
compare any differences in teaching styles between the subjects.
For the survey I was an observer and only attended to the categories included in my
classroom observation instrument: teachers’ questions - ‘open versus closed’ and
‘person-centred versus subject-centred’ - and children’s answers which were
categorised according to the response of the teacher i.e. ‘correct’, ‘incorrect’ or ‘no
response’. I recorded some of these lessons for validation purposes. These data gave
high inter-rater reliability. The results were consistent with my own experience: it
seems that open questions are preferred in the older classrooms rather than the
younger and the effect was present in the literacy classes too.
A limitation in the methodology for this research was the lack of corroborative
evidence regarding the silences or ‘wait-time’ between the end of the teacher’s
question and the beginning of the child’s reply. There are five possible interpretations
of these silences:




the child was not paying attention
the child was totally absorbed with the activity
the child did not know the answer to the question or
the child did not understand the question itself, the meaning being
clouded by the question
 the child was actually thinking.
The fifth point is of prime importance because children have to be given time to
formulate their ideas before they can possibly provide an answer (Rowe, 1974).
Rowe (1974) discovered that these ‘wait-time’ periods of undisturbed silence rarely
lasted more than 1.5 seconds in normal classroom discourse and the typical length
was between 0.7 and 1.4 seconds. She discovered that, if teachers simply increased
‘wait-times’ to three or more seconds, then there were benefits to be gained for both
teacher and pupils. According to Rowe (1974), Tobin (1987) and Stahl (1994), these
positive effects include:





an increase in the length of the pupils’ answers
an increase in the appropriateness of the pupils’ answers
an increase in the number of volunteered appropriate answers
a decrease in the number of unanswered questions
the pupils’ marks improve.
Increasing ‘wait-time’ to three seconds or more should give almost every child
sufficient time to complete the cognitive processes needed in each specific situation.
The teacher’s task is therefore to ensure that the pupils have sufficient information,
5
prior to each period of silence, so that the necessary processing can be successfully
completed.
The Teachers’ Questions
All the teachers I have spoken to in the course of my research have been familiar with
the idea of open and closed questions. Most have then gone on to explain the reasons
why they do or do not use open questions with their particular group of children. The
majority admitted that they were not familiar with the terms ‘person-centred’ or
‘subject-centred’ and therefore did not consider these aspects when questioning
children. Nevertheless, it is apparent from the survey data collected to date that both
person- and subject-centred questions are employed in all the classrooms I have
visited.
Although I collected data from complete lessons, I have only used the elicitation
phase of science lessons and the shared text activity of the literacy sessions. These
activities had several similarities which made the comparison the most suitable:

They took approximately the same amount of time
(dependent on the age of the children)
 Both activities called for children’s ideas and therefore
there was a large amount of teacher questioning
 They were carried out as whole class or whole group
activities by the teacher which meant that data collection
was more reliable.
I had hoped to be able to compare the plenary sessions in both science and literacy
but, for a variety of reasons, teachers very often omitted the plenary in one of the
subjects which meant that I was unable to make a direct comparison.
Questions asked by the Teachers
(as a percentage of total questions they asked)
Open Questions
Subject
Year
Group
Reception
(N = 822)
Science
Year 2
(Elicitation) (N = 905)
Year 4
(N = 886)
Reception
(N = 674)
Literacy
Year 2
(Shared
(N = 835)
Text)
Year 4
(N = 769)
Closed Questions
PersonCentred
Questions
SubjectCentred
Questions
PersonCentred
Questions
SubjectCentred
Questions
13.4
10.6
29.3
46.7
33.8
16.6
18.1
31.5
38.5
17.6
14.4
29.5
9.2
8.5
30.9
51.4
31.1
16.3
19.8
32.8
37
16.9
15.4
30.7
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Table 1: Types of Questions asked by the Teachers (Harris, 2005)
Table 1 records the type of questions asked by the teachers of the selected year
groups. These data can be shown graphically for the different types of question as
follows:
Figure 1: Graph of Percentages of Open Questions used with each Year Group
As can be deduced from Table 1 and Figure 1, for the Reception Classes, 24% of the
questions asked by the teacher in science were open questions whereas only 17.7% of
the questions asked in literacy for the same age group were open questions. For Year
2 the percentages of open questions asked by the teacher rose to 50.4% in science and
47.4% in literacy. There is only a small increase in Year 4 in the number of open
questions asked by the teacher: 56.1% in science and 53.9% in literacy.
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Figure 2: Graph of Percentages of Person-Centred Questions used with each Year Group
Regarding person-centred questions, these can be deduced from Table 1 and Figure 2.
For the Reception Classes, 42.7% of the questions asked by the teacher in science
were person-centred with only 40.1% asked in literacy for the same age group. For
Year 2 the percentages of person-centred questions asked by the teacher rose to 51.9%
in science with one per cent less (50.9%) in literacy. Once again there is only a small
increase in Year 4 in the number of person-centred questions asked by the teacher –
52.9% in science and 52.4% in literacy – a difference of only 0.5%.
The survey therefore reveals that there is a marked increase in the number of ‘open’
questions used with the older children in Years 2 and 4 as compared with the children
in the reception classes in both science and literacy with more open questions being
asked in science. Also, there is a gradual increase in the number of person-centred
questions being asked by the teachers as the age of the child increases.
The Pupils’ Answers
In the course of the survey I also kept a record of the type of response the pupils gave
to each question asked by the teacher:



acknowledged by the teacher to be correct
acknowledged by the teacher to be incorrect
no response given by the pupil.
For the purposes of this paper, the ‘success rate’ of each question type was
determined by combining the scores for science and literacy and then taking a
percentage of each total.
8
Figure 3: Graph of the Percentages of each Category of Question asked in the Reception Classes
From the graph, it can be seen that the reception class children have more difficulty in
answering open questions than closed questions because their success rate is 59% for
both person- and subject-centred open questions as compared with 85% and 86%
respectively for person- and subject-centred closed questions. The next most obvious
feature of the bar graphs is the large percentage of unanswered open questions – 24%
for person-centred questions and 32% for subject-centred questions. This feature will
be discussed further in this paper.
Figure 4: Graph of the Percentages of each Category of Question asked in Year 2
9
From the graph, it can be seen that Year 2 still have more difficulty in answering open
questions than closed questions. Their success rate with open questions is 65% for
person-centred and 62% for subject-centred as compared with 88% and 90%
respectively for person- and subject-centred closed questions. There remains a large
percentage of unanswered open questions – 19% for person-centred and 25% for
subject-centred.
Figure 5: Graph of the Percentages of each Category of Question asked in Year 4
By Year 4, the pupils are able to answer open person-centred questions almost as
successfully as both types of closed questions because their success rate is 84%, 88%
and 93% respectively. These eight- and nine-year-olds, however, still seem to have
problems with open subject-centred questions. They continue to be able to answer
only 62% of these questions successfully although the number of incorrect answers
has fallen from 13% to 10% since Year 2. For my sample pupils, the percentage of
unanswered questions has actually increased during this same period, from 25% to
29%.
Explaining the Unanswered Questions
I next decided to turn my attention to the questions that the pupils were unable to
answer. A total of 4891 questions were asked by teachers in the course of my survey
of which 10.69% were unanswered. I considered that this was important because,
even if the pupils answered teachers’ questions incorrectly, at least they could
comprehend the meaning of the question sufficiently to try to answer the question.
As previously discussed, according to Rowe (1974), the ‘wait-time’ periods of
undisturbed silence should last a minimum of three seconds but that in normal
10
classroom discourse the typical length was considerably less. Analysis of my own
data revealed that only 9% of the unanswered questions had ‘wait-times’ of less than
three seconds. I can only conclude that the reason for this is that Rowe’s research has
been disseminated through to the classroom by teacher trainers over the intervening
thirty years. Also, the teachers in my survey knew that I was interested in questioning
strategies and this could well have influenced their teaching.
Figure 6: Graph of the ‘Wait-Times’ for the Unanswered Questions in the Reception Classes
In the reception classes, the unanswered open person-centred questions and the closed
subject-centred questions had almost the same average length of ‘wait-time’ at 4.59
and 4.60 seconds respectively. The teachers allowed the longest average ‘wait-time’
for the open subject-centred questions at 4.98 seconds and the shortest average ‘waittime’ for the closed subject-centred questions at 4.31 seconds.
11
Figure 7: Graph of the ‘Wait-Times’ for the Unanswered Questions in Year 2
12
By Year 2 the longest ‘wait-times’ were allowed for open person-centred questions at
an average of 4.87 seconds. The shortest average ‘wait-times’ were now given for the
closed questions: 3.33 seconds for person-centred questions and 3.1 seconds for
subject-centred questions. Open subject-centred questions were given an average
‘wait-time’ of 4.10 seconds.
Figure 8: Graph of the ‘Wait-Times’ for the Unanswered Questions in Year 4
In Year 4 the average ‘wait-times’ for the four types of question had become less
diverse with less than a second between them. The open questions were given the
longest average ‘wait-times’ at 4.12 seconds for the subject-centred questions and
3.74 seconds for the person-centred questions. The ‘wait-times’ for the closed
questions were slightly shorter at 3.27 seconds for the person-centred questions and
3.52 seconds for the subject-centred questions.
Throughout this survey the open subject-centred questions have been the most
problematic for all three age groups including the eight- and nine-year-olds in Year 4.
This is partly attributable to ‘wait-times’ of less than three seconds but this only
constitutes 13% of the open person-centred questions in the reception class and 7% in
both Years 2 and 4.
The Case Studies
Case studies were also undertaken to examine the effects of different questioning
strategies on the teaching and learning of science in more detail. The teachers who
took part in the case studies were chosen on the basis of the survey as likely to be
interesting or anomalous. For the purposes of this paper I have included two short
Year 4 extracts which highlight the context-related problems which exist even with
eight- and nine-year-olds. For both the survey and the extracts from the case studies,
13
I classified the questions initially on strictly traditional grammatical grounds. In
practice, however, I was aware that an open question may well be interpreted as
closed in certain contexts.
The first class observation-extract follows a practical introduction to the lesson where
the Year 4 pupils are given the opportunity to explore the properties of four materials
– a solid, a liquid, a gas and a solid that behaves like a liquid. The materials are all
contained in transparent jars and so the pupils’ investigations are limited to visual
inspection and rolling and shaking the jars. The teacher holds up the jar of water and
encourages her pupils to explain why they believe that the water is a liquid using a
closed subject-centred question. Her pupils concentrate their attention on their own
jars of water and Jordan comes up with “you can’t hold it because it’s not a solid” and
he then goes on to explain that it “can’t be a gas”. Subsequently the teacher queries
the fact that a liquid cannot be held as his pupils are holding their jars. She uses an
open person-centred question and Jordan swiftly corrects her, “No, Miss. It’s held in
the jar”. Jordan then considers for two seconds before explaining that, “it’s not a
solid because…if it’s a solid, you can’t put your hand through it’ and then rewords his
comment so that ‘liquid’ is the subject of his statement, “you can put your hand
through a liquid”. A second closed subject-centred question generates further reasons
for believing that the contents of the jar are liquid from other members of the class.
These include “it doesn’t stand still so it can’t be a solid”, “water isn’t hard so it’s got
to be a liquid”, “a liquid can…flow into things” and “ if you put your hands in water
and then a breeze moves it, they’ll dry”. All these statements are more than the oneword responses one is led to believe will result from closed questions.
min:s
speaker
transcription
observations
3:22
Teacher
Can anybody give reasons
why you think that that is a
liquid? Jordan?
3:26
Jordan
It’s…err…you can’t hold it
because it’s not a solid and
it’s not like…it can’t be a
gas.
3:36
Teacher
3:39
Jordan
What do you mean, you
can’t hold it? You’re
holding the jar.
No, Miss, it’s held in the
jar.
(2.0)
Reflections/ analysis
of questions
C1 closed subjectcentred question
The pupils
are rolling
the jars
across the
tables.
Jordan holds R1 to C1
up the jar of
water to
help explain
his point
O1 open personcentred question
R2 to 01
2 seconds of thinking
time
It’s like…it’s not a solid
because you can’t
really…if it’s a solid, you
can’t put your hand
through it.
14
min:s
speaker
transcription
3:51
3:52
Teacher
Jordan
4:00
Teacher
Right.
You can put your hand
through the liquid. You
can put your hand through
a liquid.
Right. Okay. Right, that’s
your explanation. Has
anybody else got an
explanation why that’s a
liquid? Anthony?
4:10
4:12
Anthony Solids are hard…
Teacher I’m not asking about solids
at the moment. I’m asking
you how you know that is a
liquid.
Anthony Because it doesn’t stand
still so it can’t be a solid
and water isn’t hard so it’s
got to be a liquid.
Teacher Right. Okay, we’ll go with
that for the minute.
Lucy
A liquid can, you know,
flow into things. If you, if
you put your hands in
water and then if a breeze
moves it, they’ll dry
but…erm…with a solid it
will stay on your hands.
Teacher Right, Okay.
4:18
4:29
4:33
4:51
observations
Reflections/ analysis
of questions
R3 to 01
The pupils
continue
rolling and
shaking
their jars of
water
C2 closed subjectcentred question
R4 to C2
Reminds the pupils
about the subject of
the question
R5 to C2
Values the pupils’
ideas
R6 to C2
Figure 9: Describing the Properties of a Liquid in Year 4
One of the reasons I believe that this teacher made such good progress with her pupils
was that there was immediate practical scientific context to be observed, examined
and explored.
She deliberately initiated the discussion with the liquid which was an unusual starting
point and the pupils seemed to struggle with this. Many of their initial comments
referred to solids and they needed to rethink their explanations. Nevertheless there
was no shortage of ideas and both open and closed questions generated high-quality
responses.
In contrast, the following class observation-extract follows an exchange where the
teacher tried to encourage her pupils to come up with a title for the afternoon’s
investigation of why pulse rate changes when running. The teacher then uses a closed
question to direct her Year 4 pupils, “think about doing PE, what do we talk about?”
which gets a response “your heart goes faster”. Subsequently, the teacher asks an
15
open question “what do we think is going to happen to our pulse?” She is hoping for
a link between ‘pulse’ and ‘heart’ and she waits for four seconds without reply.
Having no success with this, she offers a closed question, actually with two explicit
choices, leading to the desired pupil response. She then attempts to extend the
scientific value of the pupil response with another open question. Again this leads to a
long pause but fails to elicit what the teacher hopes for. The teacher nevertheless
seeks to link ‘it works’ to a question that might help the pupil – the result is not
successful in this case.
min:s
speaker
11:11
Teacher
Transcription
observations
What do we think is going
to happen to our pulse?
4 seconds of ‘waittime’
C1: closed personcentred question
offers choice
R1 to C1
O2: open subjectcentred question
links pulse with
change
R2 to O2
(4.0)
11:22
11:24
Jasmine
Teacher
11:29
Kyle
Is it going to stay the same
or do you think we might
have to change it?
Change…
How does our pulse
change, Kyle?
Errm…
2seconds of ‘waittime’
(2.0)
11:32
12:06
12:08
Teacher
Andrew
Teacher
Reflections/ analysis
of questions
O1: open subjectcentred question
errm, it works.
Thank you. ↑How does
our pulse change? What
we mean is, ’How does it
work?’ How does it work
harder or how does it work
less, less hard? How does
our pulse work, how does it
change?
Now we said, ‘When we’re
moving’ but what one word
could we put for all these
types of moving: running,
walking, skipping?
Exercise.
Exercise. ↑You have your
question. Well done. So
now you’re going to try
and answer it.
The teacher tries to
tie ‘work’ to
‘change’, but without
apparent success.
There are
audible
sighs from
the children
around me.
Figure10: Finding a Pulse in Year 4
16
C2: closed subjectcentred question
links this question
with previous
discussion of PE
R3 to C2
Links to the question
they will now have
to complete.
One of the reasons I thought that this teacher struggled with the context for these
pupils was that there was little by way of immediate practical scientific context (an
observable phenomenon) to be referenced. The teacher eventually needed to remind
her pupils of their experiences of previous PE lessons in order to make any headway
with the discussion. Also, the teacher here struggled to make the desired connections
between her pupils’ responses and the targeted conception – the link between the
concepts of pulse and heart.
Conclusion
The survey reveals that teachers’ strategy-use conformed to the expected pattern:
more ‘open’ questions are used with the two older groups of children than the
reception class children and in science activities rather than literacy. These results
also suggest that, throughout this entire age range, slightly more person-centred
questions are asked by teachers in science activities rather than in literacy.
The children’s responses were also categorised revealing the varied impacts of
different questioning strategies on classroom discourse and the children’s engagement
with the activity. Examination of the children’s responses to the four types of
questions reveals that pupils in both the reception class and Year 2 had more difficulty
in answering open questions. It was not until Year 4 that the pupils were able to
answer open person-centred questions as consistently well as both types of closed
questions. All three of my age groups, however, had the most problems with
answering open subject-centred questions.
Although these data sustain the importance of teacher questioning in any learning
situation, it needs to be the ‘right’ question i.e. one that the child can comprehend.
These findings suggest that the notion of ‘open-ness’ in questioning needs to be
theorised as ‘distributed’, i.e. that it is a function of the entire context of discourse and
not only of the structure of the ‘question’ as presented by the teacher. Even the Year
4 pupils’ ability to answer questions, as revealed in the two class observation-extracts,
seems to be dependent upon the context clues given in the question itself. It is this
appreciation of context which the younger children appear to find extremely difficult
and so, in many cases, open questions seem unable to scaffold the children’s thinking
which results in the children not making connections with their own and their peers’
ideas. Generally, closed questions provide this guidance whereas open questions
often appear daunting to a young child because of the lack of information. The crucial
factor which determines whether a child responds with his or her thoughts and ideas
or stares blankly at the questioner depends on whether the child understands the
question. It appears, therefore, that context is decisive in determining whether open
and closed questions are scientifically productive.
17
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