The MERCURY Glossary
Within MERCURY, a glossary of multilateralism has been created. The glossary
includes understandings of multilateralism over time from different academic
disciplines, different political backgrounds and different places in the world.
During MERCURY's lifetime, partners collected relevant terms for the glossary.
'ALLIANCES OF DEMOCRATIC STATES' (Daalder & Lindsay)
'Alliance of Democratic States'
Term
Author Daalder, Ivo & Lindsay, James
2004
Year
Geographic
/
USA/ Brookings, Institution & Council on Foreign Relations
Institutional
Basis
Daalder, Ivo H. & Lindsay, James M.. 2004. "An Alliance of
Democracies: Our Way or the Highway", Brokkings Institution
Opinions,
Source
www.brookings.edu/opinions/2004/0523globalgovernance_daalder.aspx
“The solution must lie in creating a formal Alliance of Democracies.
Such an organisation would address the main US criticism of
Citation
institutional multilateralism—that it gives countries implacably hostile
to American values a say in its foreign policy.”
This idea builds on the theory of democratic peace. In the same spirit, a
loosely bound ‘Community of Democracies’ was founded in Warsaw in
2000 (Warsaw Declaration) initiated by the U.S and signed by over 100
states. In 2008, as the Republican Presidential nominee, John McCain
Explanation
endorsed this idea and proposed the founding of a ‘League of
Democracies’, thus reopening a debate that has defined US foreign
policy since the time of Woodrow Wilson and the U.S. entry into WWI
in 1917 ‘making the world safer for democracies’.
ASEAN WAY (Acharya)
Term
Author
Year
Academic
Discipline
Source
ASEAN way
Acharya, Amitav
2002
Diplomacy; negotiation
Acharya, Amitav. 2001. Constructing a security community in South
East Asia: ASEAN and the problem of regional order, London:
Routledge.
“a ‘process of regional interactions and cooperation based on
discreteness, informality, consensus building and non-confrontational
Citation bargaining styles’ that contrasts with ‘the adversarial posturing,
majority vote and other legalistic decision-making procedures in
Western multilateral organizations’” (p. 63)
In his analysis, Acharya refers to Lee Kim Chew’s article “Asean
Explanation Unity Showing Signs of Fraying”, published in the Straits Times on 23
July 1998 (p. 30).
BI-MULTILATERALISM (Smith & Xie)
Term
Author
Year
Academic
Discipline
Source
Citation
Bi-multilateralism
Smith, Michael and Xie, Huaixian
2009
Political Science
Smith, Michael H. and Huaixian Xie. 2009. "The European Union,
China and the United States: 'Complex Interdependence' and BiMultilateralism' in Commercial Relations." Paper prepared for
presentation at the 50th Annual Convention of the International Studies
Association, New York, 15-18 February 2009.
“[…] at the same time, […] the EU-China-US relationship is central to
power, institutions and norms in the changing multilateral commercial
system, centred on the World Trade Organisation. This means that many
of the commercial policy negotiations between the three parties are
essentially ‘bi-multilateral’: on the one hand, the management of
bilateral relations creates externalities for the multilateral system, and on
the other hand the evolution of the multilateral system creates new forces
shaping the management of bilateral relationships.” (p. 2)
COALITION OF THE WILLING / COALITION OF NATIONS
(Bush Jr.)
Coalition of the willing / Coalition of nations
Term
Author Bush, George W. (junior)
2002
Year
Political
Press conference ahead of the NATO summit in Prague
Statement
Geographic /
USA
Institutional
Basis
Bush: Join 'coalition of willing', cnn.com, 20.11.2002
Source
Citation
edition.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/europe/11/20/prague.bush.nato/
"However, should [Saddam Hussein] choose not to disarm, the United
States will lead a coalition of the willing to disarm him and at that point
in time, all our nations ... will be able choose whether or not they want
to participate."
The term “coalition of the willing” is a political expression used from
the 1990s onwards to describe an ad-hoc group of states intervening at
the international level outside the framework of established
international organisations. It is best known by George W. Bush in the
context of the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq in March 2003.
Explanation
In George W. Bush’s speeches at the UN General Assembly, he used
the term “coalition forces” (2002) or “coalition of nations” (2001, 2003,
2005, 2008).
See United Nations General Assembly Documents at www.un.org/ga/.
CONFERENCE DIPLOMACY (Berridge)
Term
Author
Year
Academic
Discipline
Source
Citation
Conference Diplomacy
Berridge, Geoffrey R.
2005
International Relations
Berridge, G.R. 2005. Diplomacy. Theory and practice, 3rd edition. New
York: Palgrave.
“[Conference diplomacy] is subject-focused and thus concentrates
minds on one issue or series of related issues. It brings together all the
parties whose agreement is necessary. It encourages informality. Its
members may even develop a certain esprit de corps.” (p. 153)
EFFECTIVE PARTNERSHIP (European Commission)
Term
Author
Year
Political
Statement
Effective Partnership
European Commission
2001
Communication from the European Commission
Geographic /
Institutional European Union
Basis
Communication from the Commission to the Council and the
European Parliament: Building an Effective Partnership with the
Source
United Nations in the Fields of Development and Humanitarian
Affairs, 2.5.2001 COM(2001)231.
“Improving co-operation with the UN is a major priority to the EU,
to its Member States and to the European Commission. […] The
Commission considers that a first step in the direction of a more
effective partnership could be taken by enhancing collaboration in
the fields of development and humanitarian affairs. […] The
Commission is convinced that the quality and impact of EC
Citation
development and humanitarian policies and activities can be
improved by better clarifying what the Community’s role should be
in the UN context and what it suggests to contribute to the
multilateral system. That positive impact can however only be
achieved if on the other hand the Commission specifies what it
expects from the partners in the United Nations system.” (p. 2)
For an analysis of the proclaimed “effective partnership” between
the European Union and the United Nations see for example Taylor,
Explanation
Paul. 2008. The End of European Integration: Anti-Europeanism
Examined. Routledge: Oxon and New York (p. 110-111).
HARMONIOUS WORLD (Hu Jintao)
Term
Author
Year
Political
Statement
Geographic /
Institutional
Basis
Harmonious world
Hu Jintao
2007
Report to the Seventeenth National Congress of the Communist Party
of China on Oct. 15, 2007.
China
Hu Jintao, Report to the Seventeenth National Congress of the
Communist Party of China on Oct. 15, 2007,
Source
www.china.org.cn/english/congress/229611.htm
Citation
“[All countries should uphold the purposes and principles of the
United Nations Charter, observe international law and universally
recognized norms of international relations, and promote democracy,
harmony, collaboration and win-win solutions in international
relations. Politically, all countries should respect each other and
conduct consultations on an equal footing in a common endeavour to
promote democracy in international relations. Economically, they
should cooperate with each other; draw on each other's strengths and
work together to advance economic globalization in the direction of
balanced development, shared benefits and win-win progress.
Culturally, they should learn from each other in the spirit of seeking
common ground while shelving differences, respect the diversity of
the world, and make joint efforts to advance human civilization. In the
area of security, they should trust each other, strengthen cooperation,
settle international disputes by peaceful means rather than by war, and
work together to safeguard peace and stability in the world. On
environmental issues, they should assist and cooperate with each other
in conservation efforts to take good care of the Earth, the only home of
human beings.…].”
The term was first coined in April 2005 during the Asia-Africa summit
commemorating the 50th anniversary of the Bandung conference to
Explanation propose renewed cooperation between the regions appearing
subsequently in Hu’s speech at the UN later that year. The reference
here is however the most comprehensive articulation so far.
INCLUSIVE MULTIPARTITE INSTITUTIONS (Rittberger)
Term
Author
Year
Academic
Discipline
Geographic /
Institutional
Basis
Source
Citation
Explanation
Inclusive multipartite institutions
Rittberger, Volker
2008
Political Science; regime theories
Germany
Rittberger, Volker. 2008. “Global Governance: From ‘Exclusive’
Executive Multilateralism to Inclusive Multipartite Institutions,”
Tübinger Arbeitspapiere zur Internationalen Politik und
Friedensforschung, no 52.
Inclusive multipartite institutions are …”institutions in which
public as well as private actors are endowed with membership and
participatory rights.” (p. 3)
Examples of inclusive multipartite institutions are UNAIDS and
the Kimberley Process, in which non-state actors are members.
INTERREGIONALISM (Hänggi et al.)
Term
Author
Year
Academic
Discipline
Geographic /
Institutional
Basis
Interregionalism
Hänggi, Heiner/ Roloff, Ralf and Rüland, Jürgen
2006
Political Science; primary theoretical school: constructivism
Europe
Hänggi, Heiner/ Roloff, Ralf and Rüland, Jürgen (eds). 2006.
Interregionalism and International Relations. London: Routledge.
Interregionalism is defined “as a process of widening and deepening
political, economic, and societal interactions between international
Citation
regions.” (p. 18)
The use of the term “interregionalism” is a relatively recent dating
from about the year 2005. It’s study is related to that of the study of
the European Union as a global actor in a number of edited volumes
(see also Fredrik Söderbaum and Luk van Langenhove (eds). 2006.
The EU as a Global Player: The Politics of Interregionalism.
London: Routledge). No studies exist of “interregionalism” between
Explanation
a regional entity outside Europe and another regional entity outside
Europe. Interregionalism is not so much a means employed by the
EU as a global actor but, rather a normative objective or to use the
classic distinction of Arnold Wolfers a “milieu goal” that is one
designed to shape conditions of functioning beyond national
boundaries.
Source
MINILATERALISM (Mastanduno)
Term
Author
Year
Academic
Discipline
Geographic /
Institutional
Basis
Source
Citation
Minilateralism
Mastanduno, Michael
2005
Political Science
USA
Mastanduno, Michael. 2005. "US foreign policy and the pragmatic
use of international institutions.", in: Australian Journal of
International Affairs 59(3):317-333.
“Multilateralism and minilateralism in the form of ad hoc
coalitions have helped to soften US hegemony by giving other
states some say in initiatives taken by the United States that
directly affect their security.” (p. 323)
MINILATERALISM (Naím)
Term
Author
Year
Academic
Discipline
Geographic /
Institutional
Basis
Minilateralism
Naím, Moisés
2009
Political Science and Economics
USA
Naím, Moisés. 2009. “Think Small to Tackle the World’s Biggest
Problems”, Financial Times, 19 June (UK edition): 13.
“So what is to be done? To start, we should forget about trying to get
the nearly 200 countries to agree. We need to abandon that fool’s
errand in favour of a new approach: minilateralism. By this I mean a
Citation smarter, more targeted approach. We should bring to the table the
smallest possible number of countries needed to have the largest
possible impact on solving a particular problem. Think of this as
minilateralism’s magic number.”
See also Naím, Moisés. 2009. ‘Minilateralism. The magic number to
Explanation get real international action’ Foreign Policy, July/August 2009.
www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2009/06/18/minilateralism
Source
MULTILATERAL (Draper)
Term
Author
Year
Academic
Discipline
Geographic /
Institutional
Basis
Source
Citation
multilateral
Draper, Peter
2001
International Political Economy
South Africa/South African Institute for International Affairs
Draper, Peter. 2001. Reviewing multilateral organisations in the
Asia-Pacific region. In Multilateral organisations in the Asia-Pacific.
Lessons and experiences for Southern Africa, edited by M. Glinzler,
W. Mabena & G. Mills. Johannesburg: SAIIA.
“Multilateral – a simple definition is that this is a grouping of three
or more countries organised around a particular issue or set of
institution. However, in the Department of Trade and Industry [of
South Africa] we employ another term that can be synonymous with
this definition: ‘regional’. A regional arrangement can of course be
multilateral, but for purposes of analytical clarity we prefer to
classify multilateral arrangements at the regional level as regional.
Thus we reserve the term multilateral for global institutional
arrangements.” (p.1)
MULTILATERALISM (Clark)
Term
Author
Year
Academic
Discipline
Geographic /
Institutional
Basis
Source
Citation
Multilateralism
Clark, Ian
2001
Political Science
USA
Clark, Ian. 2001. Globalization and the post-cold war order, in: The
Globalization of World Politics. An introduction to international
relations, eds. John Baylis & Steve Smith, Oxford University Press.
“Multilateralism: the tendency for functional aspects of
international relations (such as security, trade or environmental
management) to be organized around large numbers of states, or
universally, rather than by unilateral state action.” (p. 730)
MULTILATERALISM (Ikenberry)
Term
Author
Year
Academic
Discipline
Geographic /
Institutional
Basis
Source
Citation
Multilateralism
Ikenberry, G. John
2003
Political Science
USA / Princeton University
Ikenberry, G. John. 2003. “Is American Multilateralism in
Decline?”, Perspectives on Politics, Vol. 1, no.3: 533-550.
“Multilateralism involves the coordination of relations among three
or more states according to a set of rules or principles. It can be
distinguished from other types of interstate relations in three ways.
First, because it entails the coordination of relations among a group
of states, it can be contrasted with bilateral, “hub and spoke,” and
imperial arrangements. Second, the terms of a given relationship are
defined by agreed-upon rules and principles— and sometimes by
organizations—so multilateralism can be contrasted with
interactions based on ad hoc bargaining or straightforward power
politics. Third, multilateralism entails some reduction in policy
autonomy, since the choices and actions of the participating states
are—at least to some degree—constrained by the agreed-upon rules
and principles. Multilateralism can operate at three levels of
international order: system multilateralism, ordering or foundational
multilateralism, and contract multilateralism.” (p.534)
Ikenberry identifies different types of multilateralism at three levels
of international order: system multilateralism, foundational (or
‘ordering’) multilateralism, and contract multilateralism. System
multilateralism refers to multilateral relations between states based
on sovereignty, mutual recognition and formal equality. It is
governed by legal and diplomatic practices. The second type,
foundational, involves the organization of a regional or international
Explanation order based on certain specific principles. This type of
multilateralism occurs at an intermediate level. It includes some, but
not all, states in the international order. It has an indivisible
character: all must play by agreed rules and there are means for
enforcing them. Third and finally, contract multilateralism is the
loosest of the three versions. It may entail formal agreements among
groups of states, such as treaties. But it works mainly on the basis of
unwritten or qualified rules and norms.
MULTILATERALISM (Keohane)
Term
Author
Year
Academic
Discipline
Geographic /
Institutional
Basis
Source
Citation
Multilateralism
Keohane, Robert
2006
Political Science; primary theoretical school: liberal institutionalism
USA
Keohane, Robert O. 2006. "The contingent legitimacy of
multilateralism." In Multilateralism under challenge? Power,
international order, and structural change, eds. Edward Newmann,
Ramesh Thakur and John Tirman. Tokyo: United Nations University
Press.
“[…] conceives of multilateralism as institutionalized collective
action by an inclusively determined set of independent states. Truly
multilateral organizations are open to all states meeting specific
criteria. The rules of multilateral organizations are publicly known
and persist over a substantial period of time.” (p. 56)
Keohane’s definition of multilateralism was first formulated in:
Explanation Keohane, Robert 0. 1990. "Multilateralism: An Agenda for
Research." International Journal 45: 731-64.
MULTILATERALISM (Martin)
Term
Author
Year
Academic
Discipline
Geographic /
Institutional
Basis
Multilateralism
Martin, Lisa
1992
Political Science; primary theoretical school: Rational Choice
USA
Martin, Lisa L. 1992. “Interests, Power, and Multilateralism”,
International Organization, vol.46, no.4 (Autumn), pp765-792.
“Multilateralism is used here as a metric by which to pursue gauge
patterns of interaction, not as a normative standard. Thus, claims that
multilateralism is not efficient under some conditions does not imply
Citation
that states refuse to cooperate; rather, such claims imply only that
alternative architectures will promote international cooperation more
efficiently under those conditions.” (p. 767)
Martin treats multilateralism as a means and not a goal, opening up
the possibility that alternative ways will perhaps be superior to this
Explanation
form of cooperation/organisation depending on the area of
cooperation.
Source
MULTILATERALISM (MERCURY)
Multilateralism
MERCURY project partners
2009
Bouchard, Caroline and John Peterson. 2009. "Conceptualising
Source Multilateralism", MERCURY Working Paper, prepared for the
MERCURY Joint Workshop, Cologne, 9-10 July 2009.
“Multilateralism is three or more actors engaging in voluntary and
Citation (more or less) institutionalised cooperation governed by norms and
principles, with rules that apply (more or less) equally to all.” (p. 7)
The MERCURY working definition of "multilateralism" was discussed
among the MERCURY partners at the beginning of the project in 2009
Explanation
and subsequently integrated into the conceptual MERCURY working
papers.
Term
Author
Year
MULTILATERALISM (Ruggie)
Term
Author
Year
Academic
Discipline
Geographic /
Institutional
Basis
Multilateralism
Ruggie, John Gerard
1992
Political Science; primary theoretical school: constructivism
USA
Ruggie, John Gerard. 1993. "Multilateralism: The Anatomy of an
Institution." In Multilateralism Matters. The Theory and Praxis of an
Source
Institutional Form, ed. John Gerard Ruggie. New York: Columbia
University Press.
“multilateralism is a form that coordinates relations among three or
Citation
more states on the basis of generalized principles of conduct” (p. 11)
According to Ruggie, multilateralism is distinguished from other
forms of international relations by three properties: (a) indivisibility
among the members of a collectivity, (b) generalised principles of
Explanation
conduct, and (c) diffuse reciprocity, meaning a rough equivalence of
benefits for the members of a multilateral institution in the aggregate
and over time (cf. Ruggie 1993: 11-12).
MULTILATERALISM, ADVANCED EXECUTIVE (Rittberger)
Term
Author
Year
Academic
Discipline
Advanced executive multilateralism
Rittberger, Volker
2008
Political Science; regime thoeries
Rittberger, Volker. 2008. “Global Governance: From ‘Exclusive’
Executive Multilateralism to Inclusive Multipartite Institutions,”
Source
Tübinger Arbeitspapiere zur Internationalen Politik und
Friedensforschung, no. 52.
Advanced executive multilateralism…”derives from the charter of the
international organization granting non-state actors formal access to
Citation
deliberative and decision-making bodies.” (p. 3)
Examples of advanced executive multilateralism are UN-ECOSOC
Explanation and the World Bank, in which non-state actors have consultative
status.
MULTILATERALISM, ASPIRANT (Peterson et al.)
Term
Author
Year
Academic
Discipline
Geographic /
Institutional
Basis
Source
Citation
Aspirant multilateralism
Peterson, John/ Aspinwall, Mark/ Damro, Chad & Boswell, Christina
2008
Political Science
European Union/ UK/ University of Edinburgh
Peterson, J., Aspinwall, M., Damro, C. and Boswell, C. 2008. The
Consequences of Europe: Multilateralism and the New Security
Agenda, Europa Institute Mitchell Working Paper, Edinburgh:
University of Edinburgh, Europa Institute, 3/08,
www.law.ed.ac.uk/mitchellworkingpapers/papers.aspx.
“In aspirant multilateralism, norms inform foreign policy behaviour in
the absence of any formally-codified rules or even the prospect of
establishing them (such as on child labour or foreign investment).”
(p.8)
MULTILATERALISM, ASSERTIVE (Albright)
Term Assertive multilateralism
Author Albright, Madeleine K.
Year 1993
Political
Presidential Review Directive-13 (PRD-13)
Statement
Geograph
ic /
USA
Institutio
nal Basis
Source Presidential Review Directive-13 (PRD-13)
“The US should pursue assertive multilateralism by increasing its reliance
on international institutions, rules and partnerships …the United States
Citation might better manage transnational problems, spread the burdens of world
leadership, win legitimacy for its goals and actions, and consolidate the
expanding community of free market democracies.”
Albright coined the term ‘assertive multilateralism’ while she served as
US ambassador to the UN. She used the term to describe the Clinton
Administration's practice of joining U.S. forces with United Nations
Explanati
troops and supporting a more ambitious UN agenda. For Albright's use of
on
the term "assertive multilateralism" see also hearings of the House
Subcommittee on International Security, International Organizations, and
Human Rights of the Committee of Foreign Affairs in 1993:
ia311024.us.archive.org/0/items/usparticipationi1994unit/usparticipationi1
994unit_bw.pdf
MULTILATERALISM, ASSERTIVE (Giddens)
Term
Author
Year
Academic
Discipline
Geographic /
Institutional
Basis
Assertive multilateralism
Giddens, Anthony
2007
European Studies
UK / former director of London School of Economics and fellow of
King’s College, Cambridge
Giddens, Anthony. 2007. Europe in the Global Age. Cambridge:
Polity Press.
“The EU should adopt a stance of what one could call assertive
multilateralism – an approach which stresses the importance of
international law, negotiation and reconciliation, but recognises that
the threat of use of force may be necessary to back them up.
Citation
Multilateralism is rarely an all-or-nothing thing. There will only be
infrequent occasions where the majority of nations in the world see
eye to eye” (p. 226).
Giddens (2007: 199 – 230) mentions that the EU should follow a
Explanation policy of assertive multilateralism in a discussion on the future of
the European Union.
Source
MULTILATERALISM, CLOSED FUNCTIONAL (Krause)
Term
Author
Year
Academic
Discipline
Geographic /
Institutional
Basis
Source
Citation
Closed functional multilateralism
Krause, Joachim
200
Political science; primary theoretical school: realism
Germany
Krause, Joachim. 2008. "The Crisis of Multilateralism.” European
Liberal Forum. Helsinki. www.isuk.org/1/wpcontent/uploads/2009/06/crisisofmultilateralism_2008-06-16.pdf
“[Forms of closed functional multilateralism] have been developed as
instruments to seek opportunities for international co-operation when
open multilateralism has failed to yield results. NATO is a typical case
in kind. Closed multilateralism often takes the form of directorates or a
cartel. Typical examples are the Group of Seven (G7) and Group of
Eight (G8), the various contact groups and the various export-control
re-gimes (including the Nuclear Suppliers Group [NSG], Australia
Group, Missile Technology Control Regime [MTCR] and the
Wassenaar Arrangement). As a rule, closed functional forms of
multilateralism seem to yield better results than open functional forms
of multilateralism.” (p. 8)
MULTILATERALISM, CORE-REGION (Wu)
Term
Author
Year
Academic
Discipline
Geographic /
Institutional
Basis
Source
Citation
Explanation
Core-region multilateralism
Wu Guoguang
2008
International relations, foreign policy analysis
Asia
Wu Guoguang. 2008. “Multiple levels of multilateralism: The rising
China in the turbulent world” in China turns to multilateralism:
Foreign policy and regional security, ed. Wu Guoguang and Helen
Lansdowne, London: Routledge.
“Multilateralism effectively helps China to present to its smaller
neighbours a less threatening and more cooperative face of its
power, while it enhances equally, if not more than bilateralism,
Beijing’s interest and influence and to resolve some real problems
perplexing the states involved.” (p. 270)
In emphasizing the regional focus of the concept Wu Guoguang
explains that this has amounted to a strategy of “befriending,
pacifying, and enriching neighbours” (youlin, mulin, fulin, p. 269)
as a means to pre-empt/precipitously address concerns over power
political implications.
MULTILATERALISM, CRYSTALLISING (Peterson et al.)
Term
Author
Year
Geographic /
Institutional
Basis
Crystallising multilateralism
Peterson, John/ Aspinwall, Mark/ Damro, Chad & Boswell, Christina
2008
European Union/ UK/ University of Edinburgh
Source
Citation
Peterson, J., Aspinwall, M., Damro, C. and Boswell, C. 2008. The
Consequences of Europe: Multilateralism and the New Security
Agenda, Europa Institute Mitchell Working Paper, Edinburgh:
University of Edinburgh, Europa Institute, 3/08,
www.law.ed.ac.uk/mitchellworkingpapers/papers.aspx.
“In crystallising multilateralism, new international and international
organisations are emerging (such as judicial intervention and the
International Criminal Court or cooperation on global warming in the
post-Kyoto era)” (p.8) and “new international rules and organisations
are in the process of being established” (p.9).
MULTILATERALISM, DEMOCRACY-ENHANCING (Keohane et
al.)
Term
Author
Year
Academic
Discipline
Geographic /
Institutional
Basis
Source
Citation
Explanation
Democracy-enhancing multilateralism
Keohane, Robert O./ Macedo, Stephen & Moravscik, Andrew
2009
Political Science; primary theoretical school: Liberal
Institutionalism
USA
Keohane, Robert O./ Macedo, Stephen & Moravscik, Andrew.
2009. “Democracy- Enhancing Multilateralism”, International
Organization 63, Winter 2009, pp. 1-31.
“Participation in multilateral institutions – defined broadly to
include international organisations, regimes and networks governed
by formal international agreements – can enhance the quality of
domestic democracy […] under some plausible circumstances”. (p.
1-2)
Keohane & al. argue that multilateral institutions can enhance the
quality of national democratic processes and articulate standards
and conditions under which this can take place, thus making
proposals for the reform of international institutions.
MULTILATERALISM, DYSFUNCTIONAL (van Oudenaren)
Term
Author
Year
Academic
Discipline
Dysfunctional multilateralism
van Oudenaren, John
2003
Political Science
Geographic /
Institutional USA
Basis
van Oudenaren, John. 2003. “What is Multilateral?” In Policy Review,
No 117, pp. 33-47, see also
Source
www.hoover.org/publications/policyreview/3449941.html.
“[…] the phenomenon of what might be called “dysfunctional
multilateralism” – forms of international cooperation and organization
that affect the decision-making calculus of states (in ways that realists
tend to discount) but are at best suboptimal and at worst
Citation counterproductive from the perspective of international order (a
perspective that liberal institutionalists tend to disregard).” (p. 39)
“Multilateralism […] can become dysfunctional when states or group
of states systematically abuse the available opt-out and escape
clauses.” (p. 40)
MULTILATERALISM, ECONOMIC (Gardner)
Term
Author
Year
Academic
Discipline
Geographic /
Institutional
Basis
Source
Citation
Explanation
Economic multilateralism
Gardner, Richard N.
1956
History / International Political Economy
USA
Richard N. Gardner. 1956. Sterling-Dollar Diplomacy: AngloAmerican Collaboration in the Reconstruction of Multilateral Trade,
Oxford: The Clarendon Press.
“a system in which barriers to trade and payments are reduced to
moderate levels and made non-discriminatory in their application”
(p. 13)
This recounts the Anglo-American formulation of the principles of a
post-war economic order, seen as an essential complement to a
collective security system after the damage wrought by the Great
Crash of 1929 and the depression of the 1930s. It can be described
as the beginning of economic multilateralism.
MULTILATERALISM, EFFECTIVE (European Council)
Term
Author
Effective Multilateralism
European Council
2003
Year
Political
European Council Declaration
Statement
Geographic /
Institutional European Union
Basis
European Council: A Secure Europe in A Better World. European
Security Strategy, Brussels, 12 December 2003,
Source
www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cmsUpload/78367.pdf
“AN INTERNATIONAL ORDER BASED ON EFFECTIVE
MULTILATERALISM In a world of global threats, global markets
and global media, our security and prosperity increasingly depend on
Citation
an effective multilateral system. The development of a stronger
international society, well functioning international institutions and a
rule-based international order is our objective.” (p. 9)
MULTILATERALISM, EPISTEMIC (Krause)
Term
Author
Year
Academic
Discipline
Geographic /
Institutional
Basis
Source
Citation
Epistemic multilateralism
Krause, Joachim
200
Political science; primary theoretical school: Realism
Germany
Krause, Joachim. 2008. "The Crisis of Multilateralism.” European
Liberal Forum. Helsinki. www.isuk.org/1/wpcontent/uploads/2009/06/crisisofmultilateralism_2008-06-16.pdf
“Epistemic multilateralism […] is the quasi-permanent co-operation
that exists among like-minded states in a broad range of fields, such as
the European Union (EU) and, to a lesser degree, the North Atlantic
Treaty Organisation (NATO). Epistemic multilateralism is usually
credited as being the most effective one.” (p. 8-9)
MULTILATERALISM, EXCLUSIVE EXECUTIVE (Rittberger)
Term
Author
Year
Academic
Discipline
Exclusive executive multilateralism
Rittberger, Volker
2008
Political Science; regime thoeries
Rittberger, Volker. 2008. “Global Governance: From ‘Exclusive’
Executive Multilateralism to Inclusive Multipartite Institutions,”
Source
Tübinger Arbeitspapiere zur Internationalen Politik und
Friedensforschung, no. 52.
Exclusive executive multilateralism is …“an organizational structure
characterized by non-public negotiations and bargaining between
Citation
national government representatives, which are consciously isolated
from public scrutiny or participation.” (p. 2)
Examples of exclusive executive multilateralism are UN-Security
Explanation Council, International Atomic Energy Council (IAEA) and G7/G8, in
which non-state actors have only informal access.
MULTILATERALISM, INSTITUTIONALISED (Peterson et al.)
Term
Author
Year
Academic
Discipline
Geographic /
Institutional
Basis
Source
Citation
Institutionalised multilateralism
Peterson, John/ Aspinwall, Mark/ Damro, Chad & Boswell, Christina
2008
Political Science
European Union/ UK/ University of Edinburgh
Peterson, J., Aspinwall, M., Damro, C. and Boswell, C. 2008. The
Consequences of Europe: Multilateralism and the New Security
Agenda, Europa Institute Mitchell Working Paper, Edinburgh:
University of Edinburgh, Europa Institute, 3/08,
www.law.ed.ac.uk/mitchellworkingpapers/papers.aspx.
“In institutionalised multilateralism, rules-based international
organisations are established (such as the World Trade Organisation
for global trade).” (p.8)
MULTILATERALISM, NEW (Africa Progress Panel)
Term
Author
Year
Geographic /
Institutional
Basis
Source
New multilateralism
Africa Progress Panel
2009
Geneva
‘New Multilateralism’, Africa Progress Panel Secretariat Publication,
foreword by Kofi Annan.
www.africaprogresspanel.org/pdf/MULTILATERALISM-
PAMPHLET-FINAL300309-eversion.pdf.
“This publication brings together eminent individuals who argue that a
new and improved form of multilateralism is needed to allow the
developing world and Africa in particular, to overcome these bleak
prospects. They argue that Africa cannot afford to watch from the
Citation
sidelines as the global crisis unfolds. Instead, they call for its leaders to
use this opportunity and push for substantial reforms of the world’s
governance structure to make it more responsive, supportive and
ultimately effective” (Kofi Anan, Foreword).
This document was produced by the Africa Progress Panel Secretariat
Explanation prior to the G20 Summit in London, April 2009, proposing a new form
of multilateralism as the only solution to the current financial crisis.
MULTILATERALISM, NEW (Ban Ki-moon)
Term
Author
Year
Political
Statement
Geographic /
Institutional
Basis
Source
Citation
New multilateralism
UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon
2009
Address
United Nations
UN News Centre, “Today’s challenges require global leadership, new
multilateralism - Ban”, 21 May 2009,
www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp
“We need new vision, bold action, powerful partnerships for enduring
peace and prosperity. That is why I call for a new multilateralism. A
new multilateralism should focus on delivering global goods:
freedom from hunger, health and education and security from terror
or the threat of Armageddon”. "…a multilateralism that couples
power with pragmatic principle, recognizing that in our
interconnected world the well-being of any one nation depends, to an
increasing degree, upon the well-being of all."
MULTILATERALISM, NEW (Ikenberry)
Term
Author
Year
Academic
Discipline
New multilateralism
Ikenberry, G. John
2003
Political Science
Geographic /
Institutional USA / Princeton University
Basis
Ikenberry, G. John. 2003. “Is American Multilateralism in
Source
Decline?”, Perspectives on Politics, Vol. 1, no.3: 533-550.
“The “new [US] unilateralism” is in part a product of the “new
multilateralism,” which offers fewer opportunities for the United
States to exercise political control over others and fewer ways to
escape the binding obligations of the agreements.” (p.534) “[…]
Washington’s resistance to new multilateral agreements has
Citation
something to do with the new type of multilateralism. The older
multilateralism came with escape clauses, veto rights, and weighted
voting mechanisms that allowed the United States and other major
states to protect their interests and gave room for maneuvering. The
new multilateralism is more legally binding in character.” (p.544)
The ‘new multilateralism’, as described by Ikenberry (2003; 2007),
is more legally binding than earlier versions. It necessitates more
concessions on the part of states. Previous forms of multilateralism
were more flexible and accommodating to the interests of major
Explanation
players. Often, they contained provisions for reservations,
exemptions, veto powers or voting mechanisms. Thus, they
recognised the power of major states in the international order and
offered them relatively unthreatening cooperation.
MULTILATERALISM, OPEN FUNCTIONAL (Krause)
Term
Author
Year
Academic
Discipline
Geographic /
Institutional
Basis
Source
Citation
Open functional multilateralism
Krause, Joachim
2008
Political science; primary theoretical school: realism
Germany
Krause, Joachim. 2008. "The Crisis of Multilateralism.” European
Liberal Forum. Helsinki. www.isuk.org/1/wpcontent/uploads/2009/06/crisisofmultilateralism_2008-06-16.pdf
“Open functional multilateralism […] deals mainly under the UN
umbrella with military and non-security-related aspects of international
life. The agenda is, in principle, open ended […]. Open functional
multilateralism is based on the notion that states might prefer to solve
common problems in a multilateral way.” (p. 8)
MULTILATERALISM, SELECTIVE (Chayes)
Term
Author
Year
Academic
Discipline
Geographic /
Institutional
Basis
Source
Citation
Selective multilateralism
Chayes, Antonia
2008
International law
USA
Chayes, Antonia. 2008. "How American Treaty Behavior Threatens
National Security." International Security 33 (1): 45-81.
“‘Selective multilateralism’ – or in Richard Haass’s words,
‘multilateralism à la carte’ – is perhaps a more accurate description
of U.S. treaty behaviour than unilateralism. The United States does
not oppose international agreements, but rather adheres to those
obligations that serve its perceived interests and rejects other
obligations that do not.” (p. 47)
MULTILATERALISM, SELECTIVE (Wu and Lansdowne)
Term
Author
Year
Academic
Discipline
Selective multilateralism
Wu, Guoguang and Lansdowne, Helen
2008
International relations, foreign policy analysis
Wu, Guoguang and Lansdowne, Helen. 2008. “International
multilateralism with Chinese characteristics: Attitude changes, policy
imperatives and regional impacts” in: Wu, Guoguang and Lansdowne,
Source
Helen (eds.), China turns to multilateralism: Foreign policy and
regional security, London: Routledge.
“[…] so as to increase its multilateral involvement, China manages to
Citation strengthen its status as a regional, and even a world, power that is not
strictly bound to multilateral coordination.” (p. 6)
The central thrust of selective multilateralism is the actors preference
Explanation for choice – allowing defensive unilateralism, purposeful bilateralism,
strategic and pragmatic multilateralism.
PAX UNIVERSALIS (Bush Sr.)
Term
Author
Year
Political
Statement
Geographic /
Institutional
Basis
Source
Citation
Pax universalis
Bush, George H. W. (Sr.)
1991
Speech at the UN General Assembly
USA
George H. W. Bush, speech at the UN General Assembly,
24.09.1991, www.un.org/ga/
“Finally, you may wonder about America's role in the new world I
have described. Let me assure you, the United States has no
intention of striving for a pax americana. However, we will remain
engaged. We will not retreat and pull back into isolationism. We will
offer friendship and leadership. In short, we seek a pax universalis,
built upon shared responsibilities and aspirations.” (p. 83)
PARTNERSHIP (Kotzé & Steyn)
Term
Author
Year
Academic
Discipline
Geographic /
Institutional
Basis
Source
Citation
Partnership
Kotzé, Hennie & Steyn, Carly
2003
African Studies
South Africa
Kotzé, Hennie & Steyn, Carly. 2003. African elite perspectives: AU
and NEPAD. Johannesburg: Konrad Adenauer Stiftung.
“[Partnership] proposes increased integration and cooperation within
the African continent itself. It also proposes increased cooperation
among various tiers of society, i.e. the business sector, government
and civil society. Lastly, it proposes a partnership with the
developed world in order to realise the goals of sustainable
development and integration into the global economy.” (p.93)
THREE-LEVEL GAMES (Patterson)
Term
Author
Year
Geographic /
Institutional
Basis
Three-level games
Patterson, Lee Ann
1997
USA
Patterson, Lee Ann. 1997. “Agricultural policy reform in the
European Community: a three-level game analysis” International
Source
Organization 51(1): 135-165.
“… the empirical value of Robert Putnam’s two-level game model
(is demonstrated) when it is expanded to consider the simultaneous
Citation
negotiations at three levels: the domestic level, the EC level, and the
international level.” (p. 135)
The concept of “three-level game” is an extension of Robert
Putnam’s seminal paradigm of a “two-level” game. It was developed
to better describe the kind of intra-regional bargaining that
characterizes political behaviour within the European Union. The
Explanation
concept has some affinity with the notion of “multi-level
governance”. See also Deutsch, Hans Günter (1999). The Politics of
Freer Trade in Europe: Three-level games in the Common
Commercial, Policy of the EU, 1985-1997. Berlin: Lit Verlag.
TIANXIA ('ALL UNDER HEAVEN')
Tianxia ('all under heaven')
Term
ancient Chinese concept
Year
Geographic /
Institutional China
Basis
‘Tianxia’ or ‘all under heaven’ is essentially an ancient Chinese
world view, reflecting a tradition of cosmic universalism the term
the term equates to universal recognition and acceptance of social
and political hierarchy, shaped by the provision of moral example by
those at the apex of the hierarchy, and emulated by those
subordinate. The term as Chen Zhimin and Jian Junbo point out is
tempered by a commitment to diversity (hu er bu tong). The term is
Explanation
sometimes equated with the concept of civilization-based empire
(see for example Wang Gungwu. 2008. “China and the international
order: Some historical perspectives” in ed. Wang Gungwu and
Zhjeng Yongnian, China and the new international order, London:
Routledge). Historically, the term provided a framework for Chinese
views of the world and peripheral states in terms of tributary
relationships.
TWO-LEVEL GAMES (Putnam)
Term
Author
Year
Academic
Discipline
Geographic /
Institutional
Basis
Two-level games
Putnam, Robert
1988
Political Science; primary thoeretical school: liberal institutionalism
USA
Putnam, Robert. 1988. “Diplomacy and domestic politics: the logic
of two-level games.” International Organization 42(3): 427-460.
“The politics of many international negotiations can usefully be
conceived as a two-level game. At the national level, domestic
groups pursue heir interests by pressuring the government to adopt
favorable policies and politicians seek power by constructing
Citation
coalitions amongst those groups. At the international level, national
governments seek to maximize their own ability to satisfy domestic
pressures, while minimizing the adverse consequences of foreign
developments.” (p. 432)
The notion of “two-level games” is an analogy concerning the
interrelated “tables” in international negotiations but it can be
usefully applied to describe the links between domestic politics and
international relations. Putnam’s article is reproduced in an edited
Explanation
volume providing a series of case studies using the concept (Peter
Evans, Harold Jacobson and Robert Putnam (eds). 1993. DoubleEdged Diplomacy: International Bargaining and Domestic Politics.
Berkeley CA: University of California Press).
Source