TRANSGENIC SALMON: TOWARDS A SUPERFISH?
By Michalis Pavlidis1, Sandor G. Fekete2, Sônia Felipe3 and Teresa C. Borges4
1
University of Crete, Department of Biology, Greece
2
SZIU Faculty of Veterinary Science of Budapest, Hungary
3
Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Centro de Filosofia e Ciências Humanas, Brasil
4
Universidade do Algarve, Faculdade de Ciências Marinhas e do Ambiente, Portugal
Introduction
Fish consumption helps improving the health status of the human population,
providing protein of excellent biological value with all the essential amino acids for
optimum growth and maintenance. Fish is rich in minerals and vitamins and its intake
prevents rickets, anaemia and osteoporosis. The high omega-3-fatty acid content
improves the human immune system and prevents heart attacks. So, the consumption of
fish is also important at the economical national level, since there is less “out-off
workday” caused by illness, lower mortality rate, etc..
The world decline of ocean fisheries stocks has provided impetus for rapid growth in
fish farming. During the last decade, global production of farmed fish has more than
doubled in weight and value, as did its contribution to world fish supplies. Fish produced
from aquaculture activities accounts for over ¼ of all fish directly consumed by humans.
As the human population continues to expand beyond 6 billion people, its reliance on
farmed fish production, as an important source of protein, will also increase.
The farmed salmon industry aims to produce high-valued commodities for regional
and global markets and represents at present around 18% of the value of the nine most
consumed fish produced in aquaculture. In addition, it is mainly a rural activity in remote
geographical areas and, therefore, has a considerable socio-economic impact for these
local communities. However, during the last decade the consistent fall in the product
price has pushed the sector to a critical position. Despite the improvements in feed
consumption rates, cultured salmon reach marketable size at the age of 4-5 years,
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resulting in high production costs, mainly due to personnel and feed. Thus, enhancing the
growth rate and/or improving feed efficiency of salmon is a high priority for the sector.
Currently, there are over 35 species of transgenic fish being developed around the
world and at least one company, A/F Protein, which is presently requesting approval to
market transgenic salmon. In the case of approval, transgenic Atlantic salmon could be
the first commercially produced food product derived from a genetically modified
animal. Transgenic Atlantic salmon grow faster than non-transgenic salmon and exhibit a
greater than 20% improvement in feed conversion efficiency.
Photo. Transgenic salmon. Comparison with non-transgenic fish of the same age.
To produce such fish, a long and careful process has been followed, beginning
with the design and construction of the genetic material to be used. In living
organisms, the entire genetic code is found in every cell in the body, but in most cells
only part of the genetic code is ever activated. Genes are activated to produce proteins
by adjacent stretches of the genome called promoter sequences. The promoter
sequences are responsible for switching genes on in specific areas of the body (eg. in
the pancreas or in the adrenal glands). Growth hormone is produced in the pituitary
when the growth hormone promoter regions activate the growth hormone genes. The
dominant phase of GH production (and growth) is during the summer months. To
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increase the growing season, a gene construct was produced composed of the
Chinook salmon gene sequence for growth hormone, linked to the promoter sequence
that controls antifreeze production in the ocean pout. By incorporating this all-fish
gene construct into the Atlantic salmon genome at the egg stage, fish that are capable
of producing salmon growth hormone all year round have been developed. These fish,
which go under the trade name of AquAdvantage Bred salmon, consumes less food,
are capable of growing 4 to 6 times faster and getting twice as large than standard
salmon grown under the same conditions.
However, commercialisation of transgenic fish also faces issues of consumer and
commercial acceptance. A certain number of salmon producers adopted a ban on use of
transgenics. In contrast, Several fish farmers feel that growing public distrust of
genetically modified foods can create a potential marketing problem for the salmon
industry. The industry already faces heightened public scrutiny because of controversies
regarding possible environmental impacts of ocean net-pen aquaculture of salmon.
Against this background, certain salmon producers have distanced themselves from
production of transgenic salmon. Additionally, several groups believe that the use of gene
transfer techniques in aquaculture may have grave environmental and food safety risks.
Therefore, the use of transgenic salmon poses not only a technical, but also an ethical
problem that requires risk analysis.
Ethical concerns among the public about the appropriate use of animals are issues that
may affect public acceptance of transgenic animals as food sources. There is also
expected to be variation among the citizens of different countries as to their acceptance of
transgenic animals. Approval by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), or a
food regulatory group in another country, does not guarantee public acceptance.
Labelling of food from transgenic animals will likely be even more important to
consumers desiring a choice than has been observed for milk derived from BST-treated
dairy cows or for transgenic plant varieties. Consumers are concerned there are not
sufficient scientific data as to whether the body composition of transgenic salmon is the
same as that of the wild form. The genetically enhanced rapid growth may decrease
protein, mineral and vitamin content and may alter the resulting antigen characteristics of
meat. Hence, the possibility of producing allergies cannot be excluded. The Center for
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Food Safety and a coalition of over 60 petitioner groups, consisting of consumer and
environmental protection organizations along with fishing companies and fishermen,
filed legal petitions with the U.S. Administration demanding a moratorium on the
domestic marketing and importation of transgenic fish until the FDA adequately assesses
the impacts to the environment and human food safety.
Unintended releases of transgenic fish into the world’s waters may cause significant
impacts to the environment and endangered species. The primary environmental concerns
about releases of transgenic fish includes, for example, competition with wild
populations; movement of the transgene into the wild gene pool; and ecological
disruptions due to changes in prey and other niche requirements in the transgenic variety
versus the wild populations.
Recent studies suggest that transgenic fish are more aggressive, eat more food, and
will attract more mates than wild fish. Purdue University researchers have found that
releasing a transgenic fish to the wild could damage native populations even to the point
of extinction. Purdue animal scientists used the minute Japanese fish called medaka to
examine what would happen if male medakas genetically modified with growth hormone
from Atlantic salmon were introduced to a laboratory population of unmodified fish. The
results warn that transgenic fish could present a significant threat to native wildlife.
Transgenic fish are typically larger than the native stock, and this can confer an
advantage in mate attraction. If the genetic change also reduces the offspring's ability to
survive, a transgenic animal could bring a wild population to extinction in 40 generations.
Inevitably, fish raised in ocean net pens get out. Escaped farmed fish endanger wild
populations. How much more harm might transgenic fish pose? Industry argues that
escapes from ocean net pens are rare. But a recent news story reported five documented
escapes of salmon from net pens off the coasts of Maine and eastern Canada in the latter
half of 2000. Similarly, a violent storm crushed steel cages in Maine, releasing more than
100,000 young fish. Seals undoubtedly ate some, but how many survived is unknown.
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Your assignment
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations was founded in 1945
with a mandate to raise levels of nutrition and standards of living, to improve agricultural
productivity, and to better the condition of rural populations. Since its inception, FAO has
worked to alleviate poverty and hunger by promoting agricultural development, improved
nutrition and the pursuit of food security - defined as the access of all people at all times
to the food they need for an active and healthy life. FAO has no final opinion about the
use of genetically modified salmon. However, an electronic conference has been
organized about “The use of gene transfer techniques in aquaculture” in 2000. Pros and
contras of the representatives of variant organisations (GenoMar Oslo, Trinity College
Dublin, Purdue University, representatives from developing countries etc.) were
articulated, but no common conclusion or statement or recommendation has been done.
Suppose that FAO will soon convene a hearing (the FAO “Panel of Arbitrators”) to
determine whether or not to introduce farming transgenic salmon. They have invited five
different groups to advise them on this issue.
The four groups are1: (1) International Union of Consumer associations; (2)
International Biodiversity Organisation; (3) The Federation of European Aquaculture
Producers (FEAP); (4) The T-Salmon Farmers Association; and (5) A/F Protein, USA.
Groups (1), (2) and (3) argue against the marketing of transgenic salmon, whether groups
(4) and (5) see transgenic salmon as a viable solution to the major problems and,
therefore, argue strenuously for its development.
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The label of three groups of the “Panel of Arbitrators” is fictitious (International Union of Consumer
associations; International Biodiversity Organisation; The T-Salmon Farmers Association). However,
most – if not all – of U.S.A. and European Consumer Associations and Environmental Organisations are
against the production of transgenic fish. In addition, the British Columbia Salmon Farmers Association
adopted, in February 2000, a ban on the use of transgenic fish. However, plans to introduce transgenic
salmon in countries that do not phase production restrictions or severe consumers concerns are ongoing.
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Your task is now to serve either on one of the five teams, or on the FAO arbitration
board. Please, build consistent ethical arguments on whether or not to introduce farming
transgenic salmon. Base your statements on scientific and moral reasoning as stated by
the above named conference organisations and outlined in the following sections.
Descriptions of the various groups, their positions on the case, and their specific tasks
follow.
Panel: FAO Arbitrators
You will be asked to decide whether to introduce farming transgenic salmon. Use
your time to decide on what additional facts you need from each group of interest in order
to create a good decision and what moral questions need to be answered. After you hear
testimony from each interested group, you should ask the groups any questions that you
think remain unanswered. After all the testimony is complete, you will have time to make
your decision. Please select a representative to present your decision and support it with
your moral reasons.
Witness Groups
1. INTERNATIONAL UNION OF CONSUMER ASSOCIATIONS
You represent an association dedicated to protecting consumers. You think that
transgenic salmon may pose threats to human health. In addition, you believe that
important issues, like who and how will this products be regulated, have not yet
addressed seriously by the authorities. You also feel that there is an attempt to introduce
fish, whose farming is at present unacceptable to Western countries, to be produced in
“poor” countries which badly needed food and whose consumers are not so GMOconscious. Although you may be sensitive to potential cost advantages for consumers,
you will oppose the appeal to market transgenic salmon until your concerns are duly
addressed.
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2. INTERNATIONAL BIODIVERSITY ORGANISATION
You represent an organisation dedicated to protecting the environment and promoting
biodiversity and sustainable development. You believe that the introduction of transgenic
salmon is for the biotechnology industry to improve its image and for the profit-hungry
fish sellers. You will argue the FAO that transgenic salmon should not be marketed
because of the environmental risks it poses.
3. FEDERATION OF EUROPEAN AQUACULTURE PRODUCERS (FEAP)
FEAP was created in 1968 as an international organisation that is composed of the
National Aquaculture Associations of European countries. The basic aims of the
Federation are: (1) to develop and establish a common policy on questions relating to the
production and the commercialisation of aquaculture species reared professionally; (2) to
make known to appropriate authorities the common policies envisaged above. The FEAP
encourages a policy of openness and transparency in its consultations to analyse and
develop the issues that affect aquaculture producers throughout Europe.
FEAP believes that the key priorities for increasing profitability and maintaining
sustainability of the aquaculture sector are: the product quality; the food safety; and the
environmental sound practices. The final product should be similar if not better than the
wild standard. You will argue that European farmers are not likely to benefit from
transgenic salmon due to market risks and that transgenic salmon should not be marketed
at present.
4. T- SALMON FARMERS ASSOCIATION
T-Salmon is a producers’ organisation that is composed of the fish farmers interested
in the production of transgenic fish. The basic aims of the Association are: (1) to protect
the interests of its members; and (2) to take measures that will increase the profitability
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and sustainability of the sector. The T-Salmon Association believes that the introduction
of new technology into the fish farming process is a key factor towards decreasing the
cost of production and increasing the competitiveness of the sector. The T-Salmon
Farmers Association is the first producer’s Association that in a unanimous vote of its
Board of directors, adopted the use of transgenics by its members. You believe that
transgenic salmon is the only solution towards the increased profitability and
competitiveness of the sector. You will argue for the support of the transgenic marketing
5. A/F PROTEIN, USA
A/F protein is a development-stage biotechnology company which mission is to
develop the use of antifreeze proteins for the control of cold-induced damage in
medical, food and cosmetic products and to develop fish with improved growth rates
and other economically desirable traits through the use of gene constructs, many
based on promoters. A/F Protein Inc is the world's only commercial producer of
antifreeze proteins purified from natural sources for sale to the research and
development community. The regulatory sequences controlling expression of AFPs in
fish have been used by the company to re-engineer the fish growth hormone gene,
resulting in the development of transgenic AquAdvantage™ Salmon and other
species which grow at an initial rate of 400% - 600% faster than standard fish,
offering significant economic advantage in commercial aquaculture. There is still
some research and development work to be carried out, however, the AquAdvantage
Bred salmon is available to the aquaculture industry. In addition to Atlantic salmon,
similar techniques are being applied to other finfish, such as Arctic charr, trout,
tilapia, turbot, and halibut.
At present A/F protein has 10,000 to 20,000 transgenic salmon that grow up to four to
six times faster than non-transgenic salmon and exhibit greater than 20% improvement in
feed conversion efficiency. The economic benefits from the introduction of the
technology developed into the salmon farming industry are more than obvious. The
AquAdvantage Bred salmon, (1) will add an agronomically important trait into a farmed
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high-valued fish species; (2) will dramatically decrease the production cost of the farm;
and (3) will decrease dependance for fish meal from natural resources. It will offer a
solution for improving animal productivity and sustainability of the sector. A/F hopes
that these fish will become the broodstock for producing eggs for commercial aquaculture
in Canada, New Zealand, Chile, and the United states. A/F feels that environmental
concerns can be addressed by producing transgenic salmon in closed systems or by
producing sterile fish, and consumers concerns by showing that there are no safety issues.
The company hopes to gain approval and to begin commercial production and marketing
of its fish by 2003.
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