The Archaeology and Art History of Ancient China: Research in the Next Decade
Katheryn M. Linduff
University of Pittsburgh
The Setting:
Since the founding of the People’s Republic in 1949, we have witnessed a period
where the archaeological and art historical study of ancient China has served many
functions: scientific, nationalistic, touristic, economic, to name a few. The next decade
will undoubtedly emerge as a close cousin of this first period. Since the introduction of
scientific archaeology there in the 1920’s, archaeological activity has followed two paths
in China; historiographically oriented Neolithic and Bronze Age archaeology and
Paleolithic archaeology aimed at the study of human evolution. As my experience is
entirely in the former, it is on that that I will comment more fully.
These divisions can be found in two different bureaucratic houses in Beijing,
provincial government and university offices and institutions. Although the IVVP
appears to have a more neutral view about issuing permits, especially to Sino-foreign
teams, both divisions have histories based on inherited Chinese traditions as well as those
appropriated from the West. Chinese Paleolithic archaeology was strongly influenced by
the French tradition of the 1920’s and 1930’s; Neolithic and historic archaeology was
modeled on the field methods and philological traditions introduced both from Europe
and the US. Even so, all archaeological research in China can be said to emerge from a
common Chinese intellectual tradition. Whether attempting to reconstruct Pleistocene
human prehistory or to explain the emergence of Dynastic China, the most fundamental
issue addressed by archeologists has been to reconstruct the origin and development of
the Chinese people and their civilization. That is to say, similar interests and goals drive
research questions in both divisions. The strength and tenacity of those interpretive
traditions should not be underestimated, in my view, and must be accounted for in any
research program including Sino-foreign programs now and in the foreseeable future.
The search for the origins and locations of archeological cultures (defined by
ceramic styles) has been tied to theories of cultural diffusion and migration. Traditional
Chinese historiography as well as the modern Marxist model are particularistic and
evolutionary and propose that Chinese civilization emerged in the Yellow River "core"
and then spread to "peripheral" areas by way of political expansion and cultural diffusion
over many millennia. Most archaeologists and art historians studying China in the past
have accepted the main premise of this model. The underlying assumption is that there is
a cultural norm so that major early excavations were concentrated in those areas where
the archaeologists expected, or at least hoped, to verify the early written histories. And
still now, the most prestigious and guarded research is that on the Yellow River Basin.
Even in Paleolithic studies, the evolution of human Pleistocene prehistory has been
sought on “Chinese” soil, and comparative studies are a relatively recent endeavor.
Because the focus of archaeological fieldwork has been on excavation of tombs of the
elite, the Chinese data currently available is often not well suited to comparative studies.
And, Chinese archaeologists have very rarely gone abroad to work and have little
knowledge of current studies conducted in regions of the world outside of China. Those
who study China, but are not Chinese nationals, must either confine their work to analysis
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of mortuary contexts, or generate their own data through fieldwork that until the last
decade was nearly impossible to do and is still very limited. Never the less, interest in
the Chinese data for comparative studies is very high.
Artifact and human faunal remains have been very carefully subjected to
typological analysis and have been used to construct linear chronologies. That
periodization coupled with stratigraphic information from excavation, are the absolute
backbone of archaeological research in China today, even though they are being tested
and adjusted in current projects, especially in those that make use of newly developed
analytic, often technically sophisticated, methods of examination.
But many factors have affected the field of archaeology in China since the 1920's.
The sheer volume of materials that has been unearthed in scientific excavations in the
20th century is probably the most significant factor. (Falkenhausen 1993) Regulations on
preservation of cultural remains instituted since 1949 has necessitated examination of
sites disturbed accidentally, through the building of roads, buildings, dams, etc., so that
most of the excavation on the Mainland is selvage work. Because this approach does not
allow for study only of selected sites of known or suspected historic significance, finds
outside the core area have come to light and have fundamentally effected the analysis of
early China.
In addition, since the early l980's the central government has loosened its controls
on provincial and local efforts, and archaeological investigation has witnessed an increase
in regionalism as a result of decentralization. Since then most provinces have developed
their own teams led either by University faculty or by Museum scholars and many
publish journals dedicated to presenting area finds. The officially sanctioned journals
continue (Kaogu, Wenwu, Kaogu Xuebao , Kaogu yu Wenwu, etc.) with the addition of
several journals that focus on regions (Southern Ethnography and Archaeology), or
Provinces (Archaeology of Inner Mongolia, Sichuan Archaeology), for instance. Some
are cleared for export, but many are not available outside of the PRC. The publication of
monographs and field reports is now and will continue to be expensive and the exception,
and frequently depends on subvention from outside sources.
The primary focus of these publications is now and will continue to be the
reporting of new sites and the typology and periodization of objects or the decipherment
of the iconography of decor. These typologies are the basis of geographic and temporal
definition of “cultures” in China today just as they were when the first catalogues of
collections of ancient materials appeared in the 11th century. Occasionally articles that
review or apply alternate methods and theory appear, and hopefully this will develop into
genuine debate in print and in conference settings. Now, of course, knowledge of this
material reaches a wide audience in the East as well as the West and increasingly articles
by non-Chinese nationals are published in those journals and in conference proceedings.
How to interpret the new material and its implications for Chinese history has met with
much more interest and controversy than discussions of method and theory.
With the archaeological fieldwork conducted in the last twenty-five years,
perhaps the single most challenged notion about the formation of early Chinese culture
has been whether it emerged in a unilinear fashion, from a single core which developed in
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the Central Plain and spread from there to other parts of Asia, or otherwise. Most current
research suggests that "otherwise" is the more plausible explanation. Many questions
follow from the new data. Along with late 20th century efforts in the PRC to maintain a
unified nation, archaeological investigations have been useful when they studied areas
where ancient minorities might be traced. More recently, when the mononuclear theory
necessarily weakened as more and more diverse materials were unearthed, a regional
paradigm has been proposed (Wang 1997; Zhang 1985; Lin 1986; Wu 1985). Using Su
Bingqi’s regional model some (Wang 1997 and Zhang 1999) suggest that among the
many goals of Chinese archaeology, the search for the origins of the "Hua", or the ethnic
Chinese, as well as for the ancient minorities is especially worthy. But what and who
contributed to Chinese culture are questions that strike deep into nationalistic, as well as
ethnic sentiments. And, whatever the nature of one's interpretation of culture and its
formation and change, the point or points where such questions could be tested have not
until very recently been identified archaeologically.
Because selvage recovery has been, and presumably will continue to be, the norm
for Neolithic and historic archaeology, those regions that are most prosperous, that is
where new roads, housing, or other activities including nationally designated ones such as
the Three Gorges Dam project, will be the areas where most new information will be
yielded. Surely south and south-central China will see increased archaeological activity
as a result of the booming economy there. Even so, I think that we will probably not see
a de-emphasis on research on or in the Central Plain, but unless unexpected prosperity
reaches the region, few new large-scale projects will be initiated there soon without
outside funding. The most recent exceptions are the Chronology Project that sought a
single, precise dating for the first three dynasties, and a newer project focused on
archaeological recovery of “Chinese civilization” in Henan. Both are funded by the
central government and follow the current nationalistic goals that search for continuity in
Chinese civilization.
An exception to activity centered on selvage recovery will be that provided by
Sino-foreign projects. In the 1990’s a few Sino-foreign teams have conducted problemoriented research. These regional surveys and test excavations have focused on the
reconstruction of human behavior. This is a significant shift in emphasis, but one in
which previously developed typologies and chronologies often play a significant role.
Both new methods and theory, particularly those developed in North America since the
1960’s, including computer technology, are in my experience, of great interest to midcareer and younger Chinese archaeologists and have allowed real cooperation to develop.
In my field experience in Inner Mongolia, presentations that demonstrate new methods as
applied to areas of the world outside of China are also well received and have been a very
effective way of introducing new approaches.
Emphasis on the context of human behavior has allowed some increased interest
in collecting information on environment, climate, ecology, animal and plant evolution,
and so forth, although analysis is still discussed more than accomplished. Hopefully this
will draw together scientists such as geologists, zoologists, and so forth, and allow for
greater emphasis on collecting, preserving and analyzing data relevant to lifeways.
Technical studies on materials, such as those on metals and ceramics, on the other hand,
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do take place with some regularity and are quite telling in relation to the activities of
communities in many regions. This type of analysis will presumably continue.
The possibility of attracting attention with the exotic or spectacular in order to
gain national or provincial recognition or tourism for much needed financial support has
continued to be supplied by focus on excavation of burials of elites. This coupled with
the traditional interest in verifying histories written by and about elites has not
encouraged systematic analysis of whole populations. In the absence of contextual
information gathered archaeologically, many art historians have focused on defining
styles and methods of manufacture of bronze ritual artifacts and on finding analogies for
the thousands of unprovenanced ancient objects in museums and private collections
outside of China. And, the increase of familiarity with Chinese materials has,
unfortunately, also fueled collectors’ desires for Chinese artifacts and provided looters as
well as copyists a ready market. Illicit trade in Chinese artifacts has reached unparalleled
heights in the past decade.
Although many young Chinese scholars have gone abroad to pursue professional
training, only a few have returned to conduct research. Almost none have returned to
teach at universities. Although courses on “western” theory and ancient “civilizations”
have been taught in Chinese universities for over a decade, very few first-hand written or
artifact sources are available for study. Those who have or will in the near future return
to China have the potential to make a major impact on the field and its direction. What
the impact of “foreign” thinking will have long term will depend on many factors: the
political climate, the economic demands, foreign policy, interests from the private sector
in China, and level of funding available for such undertakings.
Limited access to Chinese data in the past due to political, linguistic, and even
cultural barriers has heightened the desire to know about it especially among
archaeologists outside of China. Interest in comparative data from China from all periods
has been and will certainly continue to be high among archaeologists working in other
areas of the world. Likewise, as access to the Internet and printed matter from inside and
outside of China continues to grow, exchange of ideas and information will necessarily
follow at an even greater speed. The doors are open and little except the force of
tradition will prevent change in the field.
The Next Decade:
In my view, the most progressive research on ancient society in the next decade
will be problem-oriented and will focus broadly on reconstruction of human behavior
across all socio-economic levels. Evidence from many aspects of life, including
excavation of habitation will refocus attention away from the almost complete
dependence on mortuary evidence. Understanding archaeological contexts will, I think,
be increasingly important for historians, art historians, and archaeologists as primary
evidence either as a supplement to or replacement for the written record. Such analyses
will include studies of village and city planning; family, household and/or other group
production of food, artifacts, etc.; local ritual and ceremonial activities; and analysis of
health, climate and other external factors. Collaboration is required for this sort of
research since it demands many and diverse skills and will draw participants from
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different disciplines as well as national backgrounds. Research questions that focus on
human behavior will require both interdisciplinary methods and comparative analysis.
As new research directions emerge, they will probably necessitate use of the latest
technology and interpretive systems. Short seminars (two weeks??) given in China or
Taiwan by professionals from outside of China to introduce theory and methods, as they
have been applied elsewhere in the world, could be offered to new PhDs. Since very few
archaeologists or art historians in the PRC have had access to or have read materials in
languages other than Chinese, access for beginning professionals to settings outside of
China where they could read and learn other methods of analysis including field practice
would be especially desirable. Document swaps or electronic document delivery
programs would also support the opening up of research avenues. Library purchase and
exchange programs at institutions that teach archaeology and art history both at the
undergraduate and graduate levels would encourage immediate dissemination of
information. Sino-foreign fieldwork in China involving collaborative, international
participation, including dual language publication will, hopefully, also be effective and
constructive. And, encouragement for Chinese archaeologists and art historians to work
abroad would, I think, encourage comparative analysis and discourage intellectual
isolation.