Seven Techniques for Solving Classroom Discipline Problems
Maureen O’Keefe and Marlowe Smaby
Cathedral High School
University of Minnesota-Duluth
Duluth, Minnesota
For the last six years these authors have worked in high schools where administrators
continually declare discipline problems are to be handled almost exclusively inside the
classrooms. It was implied that teachers who send students to the office were not “good”
teachers. However, no effective behavior modifying methods for classroom use were
announced. It was assumed that teacher education classes had shed some light on this matter.
But, most of these courses did not explore any ways of handling discipline problems. The
purpose of this article is to present techniques which can be employed when dealing wit
classroom management difficulties.
Before identifying these methods there are a few preliminary considerations. First, a
teacher is only one person who influences a student. If he attempts to change behavior while
others do not, chances of altering the problem are poor (Blackman and Silberman 1971). Some
success may be achieved, but probably undesirable behavior will be performed elsewhere.
Therefore, enlisting aid of significant parents, counselors, and other teaches is necessary.
Sultzbacher and Sherman (1970) case studies with adolescents demonstrate the importance of
coordination.
Secondly, a teacher should be sure that maladaptive behavior is also a problem to other
class members. When determining whether to change a behavior these following questions
should be answered in the affirmative. Does the problem prevent the student and class from
learning and/or the teacher from teaching? Is the behavior harmful to the student or to others?
Does it prevent a student from being accepted? Has the student performed this behavior for a
long period of time? Does he do it frequently? Information of this type aids the teacher to plan
strategies as well as reasonable expectancies.
Finally, a specific behavior is often accompanied by other deviant acts (Goldiamond
1965). For example, it is likely that student who continually disturbs class by mumbling remarks
may also crumple paper and slam books. In some cases, eliminating mumbling may control
other disturbances. It may also be necessary to eliminate the series of disturbing behavior one at
a time. In the above example, the most disruptive behavior should be changed first.
Positive Reinforcement
B.F. Skinner (1953) proposed a theory of operant conditioning stating behavior is learned
through reinforcement. This means if a person does something and then is immediately
rewarded he will probably act the same way more often. For instance, if a student speaks in class
and is praised he will probably increase his talking. The practice of reinforcing speaking during
discussions is not new, but most teachers do not use it systematically. For example, many
teachers become discouraged when they attempt to conduct class discussions. However, if
students are not reinforced for talking even when their answers are not entirely correct,
discussion periods will not be a rewarding experience. Reese (1966) identified six basic steps to
follow when applying positive reinforcement.
1. Determine specifically a behavior to be changed.
2. Obtain a baseline of the behavior to be promoted or decreased. In other words, how
often does a student display an adaptive or undesirable behavior? This is essential to
note so any improvement or decline can be measured.
3. Arrange the situation so desirable behavior will occur. A teacher cannot reinforce
behavior that is not in a student’s repertoire. This is known as shaping.
4. Identify potential reinforcers. The teacher must determine what will reinforce a child.
Most teachers tend to give praise as reinforcement, but not all students respond
appropriately. Some will be uncomfortable when praised (Korn, 1969). Others
having no history of receiving approval will probably not respond positively (Statts,
1970). In these instances it is necessary to employ more concrete reinforcers such as
listening to music, working on a project, operating audio-visual equipment or
receiving a privilege. Also, token reinforcement programs can be used. This is
where students earn chips to exchange for rewards such as candy, break periods and
money.
5. Dispense and time reinforcers appropriately. Rewards must be given immediately
after an appropriate behavior has been performed. Reinforcement should occur after
every desired behavior is performed, until it is a well established habit. Afterward, it
is sufficient and necessary to reinforce only a varied number of times (ratio) or at
varying times (interval). If a behavior is reinforced consistently the reinforcer may
lose appeal. For example, if a hungry person buys a hotdog and eats it he will find it
pleasurable. However, after eating nine hotdogs, a tenth one would not be rewarding
because of being full and sick of hotdogs. Hotdogs lost their initial reinforcing power
through over use.
6. Maintain cumulative records of reinforced behavior to determine whether a response
strength or frequency has increased.
Positive reinforcement and token reinforcement have been advocated by (Staats 1970;
Orme and Purnell, 1970; Becker et al., 1967; Kuypers, Becker and O’Leary, 1970; McKenzie,
Clark, Wolf, Kothera, and Benson, 1970; and Sanborn and Schuster, 1969).
Extinction
Extinction occurs when reinforcement of a behavior ceases (Reese 1966). This means
that a behavior which does not receive a reward will eventually disappear. If a teacher refused to
reinforce undesirable behavior, it will probably diminish. Refusing to reinforce a behavior
means ignoring and not calling attention to the inappropriate action. “Attention to maladaptive
behavior often reinforces a behavior because a student wants attention” (Vance, 1969). For
example, a teacher who interrupts class to correct a student for talking may inadvertently be
providing reinforcing attention.
The following characteristics of extinction should be noted:
Initially, a behavior that was reinforced and suddenly is not may increase in frequency
and intensity. Eventually, however, it will subside. For example, a student is more likely to talk
loud and frequent in hopes that persistence will eventually gain attention. However, if he is not
reinforced he will eventually desist (Sulzer, Mayer and Cody, 1968). Most behavioral changes
accomplished through extinction are noted within a period of two weeks (Blackman and
Silberman, 1971).
A behavior considered extinct may reappear later, possibly within a day, week or several
weeks. This is known as spontaneous recovery. The behavior will disappear if not reinforced
and spontaneous recovery will rarely occur a second time.
If a teacher does not reinforce a student’s undesirable behavior but his classmates do
extinction will probably not take place. Peer attention or approval is a powerful reinforcement.
The teacher needs to devise ways to insure that a student’s behavior is not reinforced by his
friends. Extinguishing a behavior is most effective when coupled with positive reinforcement for
a desired behavior (Cahoon and Wenrich, 1970; Harris, Wolf, and Baer, 1964).
Contingency Management
Contingency management was founded by Premack (1959). It proposes that a highly
desirable response can reinforce a response that is less desirable. For example, a student is
allowed to play a game of his choice dependent upon remaining at his desk for a half-hour. The
desirable activity follows performance of an undesirable one. Thus, the undesirable acquires
characteristics of the desirable.
Although most cases concerning contingency management illustrate effectiveness in
improving academics it can also be used successfully in controlling maladaptive behavior
(Homme, 1970; Barrish, Saunders and Wolf, 1969). Addison and Homme (1966) devised a
reinforcing event menu which provides hints for identifying high priority activities of students.
Teachers can also observe students to discover activities that are highly rewarding, as well as
have students suggest activities they enjoy.
Negative Practice
Short of punishment, negative practice is probably the quickest way to eliminate
undesirable behavior. Negative practice involves eliciting a student’s response over and over
until there is no desire to produce it again. According to Guthrie (1952) the organism just
becomes fatigued. For example, perhaps a student has been whistling during class discussions
four to five times for three consecutive days. At first, it was thought the student might not be
cognizant of whistling, but inquiries clearly indicate his awareness. After this, the student was
required to remain after class and instructed to whistle for fifteen minutes. Toward the end of
this time period he could barely whistle and had no desire to continue. The whistling did not
occur again.
In many situations negative practice is not recommended, especially if repetition would
be harmful. For instance, if a student slammed his fist on a desk, it would harm him to do this
repeatedly. Negative practice must not be the main communication vehicle between a student
and teacher. As with extinction, it is most effective when coupled with models exhibiting
desirable behavior followed by reinforcement.
Pairing
Pairing consists of placing two students together so that one who demonstrates desirable
behavior will influence another who exhibits undesirable behavior. This is a form of modeling
(Bandura, 1965). In other words, a student learns to produce adaptive responses through
observing others being reinforced for a particular behavior. When imitation occurs it should be
immediately reinforced. Teachers must be careful when selecting model students. The model
must exhibit strong and consistent patterns of desirable behavior; otherwise effects of paring may
work in reverse, especially if reinforced by peers.
Punishment
When teachers punish they either administer aversive condition (apply negative
reinforcement punishment) or take away a privilege or object (withdrawal positive
reinforcement) (Skinner, 1953). Many teachers employ negative reinforcement punishment
procedures which can be effective if proportionate, consistent, and reasonable. However, results
are often temporary because no new desirable behavior is learned. In addition, a different
undesirable behavior may arise. For example, if a student is reprimanded for running in the hall,
he may quit temporarily. If not positively reinforced for walking his running will probably
reoccur. At the same time, he may learn not to run only when the teacher who reprimanded him
is present. Another possibility is avoiding the directing teacher. Thus, outcomes of negative
reinforcement punishment can result in many accompanying behaviors which are difficult to
predict and control. Punishment should be used as the last resort after other methods have been
tried with no results. Negative reinforcement punishment is an acceptable disciplining procedure
when a behavior would result in immediate injury. When used it should be followed by an
explanation of desired behavior. If this proper behavior is produced immediate reinforcement
should follow.
Keirsey (1969) stated “penalty methods often change feelings, but restriction methods
often change relevant behaviors.” This statement differentiates between scolding and removal
from class. Withdrawal is a more effective method but still is a form of punishment.
Time out and Systematic Exclusion
Time out and systematic exclusion are based upon withdrawal of reinforcement. They
involve removing a student who misbehaves for a specified time period. Then, the student is
permitted to re-enter the classroom. If he misbehaves again, he is removed, and so on. Time out
and systematic exclusion have the following points in common:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Presumption a student would rather be in the classroom.
Specified behaviors are indicated which result in removal.
An isolated area is available for restricted student.
Performance of a maladaptive behavior results in immediate placement in an isolated
area.
5. Exclusion for a specific time period is the only consequence. It is not accompanied
by scolding and disappointment.
6. Absence of highly rewarding activities in the secluded area is essential. For example,
the room should not have TV, cards and games. However, some magazines, books
and other neutral activities might be appropriate. Students should not be deprived of
regular school break periods, lunch or assemblies.
Time out procedures used by Sulzer, Mayer and Cody (1968) are usually conducted
within the building. The student is placed in a “time out room” for ten to fifteen minutes.
The teacher directs him to the room. In some cases, the student may decide to go upon
his own volition if he thinks he might be on the verge of misbehavior. If a separate room
is not available a screened off corner of a classroom or area in the hall may be used. The
success of time out with adolescents is presented by Tyler (1965).
Systematic exclusion is a method devised by Keirsey (1969) to modify the
behavior of an habitual offender. It involves sending a student home for the day
immediately following a pre-specified behavior. The student returns to school the
following day without receiving recrimination. At home, a cooperative and instructed
parent must be present to insure proper isolation and presence of only “neutral” activities.
Since systematic exclusion many times involves a student, teachers, principal and a
counselor a written contract must be used to indicate exact responsibilities and what will
happen if these do not materialize (Keirsey, 1969). Details regarding behavioral
contracts are presented below.
Behavioral Contract
A contract is a written agreement. A behavioral contract demands certain expectations of
each person and assumes signers desire a specified behavior from each other. Therefore, each
individual’s actions reinforce another. If a contract member does not fulfill his responsibilities
he does not receive a behavior he wants (withdrawal of positive reinforcement). Behavioral
contracts can be used between teacher and student, teacher and student groups and student and
student. Dinoff and Rickard (1969) present these requirements for behavioral contracts.
Expectations must be clearly defined and understood.
The terms must be fair. No member should feel that he is not getting as much as another.
If a student agrees to remain in his seat during class and the teacher only agrees to praise
him the terms of the contract may not be fair. The student might consider running
errands more equitable reinforcement.
The contract must contain a mutually agreed upon goal. For example, maybe getting
through a class period without a confrontation would be the chief aim.
It must seem reasonable and possible for each party.
It should not be determined until the parties agree it has been fulfilled.
A sixth requirement should be added. If a student expects a teacher to stop
making statements which make fun of him, resuming verbal degradation even if he
breaks the contract is not wise. Care must be taken to insure that breaking a contract does
not result in an aversive condition. For example, translating talking out of turn to being
quiet; and receiving a scolding to getting a ten minute recreation period would result in a
positive climate. The situation would be reversed from getting nothing, or being
punished, to withdrawal of reward, or receiving one. Hence, withdrawal of a positive
reinforcer would occur instead of an unpleasant event from the teacher if the contract was
broken.
Besides clearly defining expectations, the student and teacher must negotiate
contract terms together. This binds both of them to the agreement. Thus, a student is
partially responsible for the consequences of his own behavior.
Accurate recording of behavior is an important aspect of behavior modification
because it can be determined if any progress is being made. If not, methods must be
changed. The reader is referred to Blackman and Silberman (1971) for a variety of
detailed recording instruments and methods.
A careful review of the literature resulted in identifying positive reinforcement,
extinction, contingency management, negative practice, pairing time out and systematic
exclusion, and behavior contracts as fruitful disciplinary techniques for high school
teachers. In general, rewarding adaptive responses that replaces deviant behaviors were
favored. The first three techniques exclusively utilize reinforcement. The latter four
included rewards but also have elements of withdrawal of reinforcement which is a
lighter form of punishment. Direct negative punishment is recommended in severe
emergency situations.
Within each of the seven discipline techniques, learning principles, case
illustrations, and recent applications by researchers were enumerated. In general, the
literature indicates that these discipline actions have been used successfully. However,
behavior modification can only be effective if other positive interactions between
students and teachers are prevalent.
In our experiences a brief exposure to the aforementioned techniques results in
teachers being able to utilize them to their advantage. Recently, at a local high school,
one in-service meeting was used to encourage teachers to apply for these techniques
instead of the usual negative punishment procedures. Since then, over one-half of the
teachers have utilized at least one of these seven techniques. The majority indicated they
want more background, examples and in-service training in behavior modification. In
addition, a reduction of crisis intervention measures taken by the school administrators
was noted.